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(Issue 24)

Greed: The Source of Suffering and the Path to Liberation

Instructor: Shi Ziju

Author: Shi Fafu

January 19, 2026

Abstract

This paper takes as its central thesis that “greed is the source of suffering, and through Buddhist wisdom, attachment to greed can be eradicated to achieve liberation.” It comprehensively explores the nature, causes, harms, and remedies of greed. From both secular and Buddhist perspectives, it precisely defines the essence of greed, analyzing its formation through the interplay of internal ignorance, external conditions, and habitual tendencies. The paper elaborates on its multifaceted harms—to personal physical and mental health, external karmic consequences, and the pursuit of liberation—while systematically presenting practical methods such as the recognition of illusion, the application of wisdom, contemplation practices, and the cultivation of bodhicitta.

Drawing on Buddhist scriptures such as the Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma and the Great Jewel Heap Sutra, alongside historical cases (e.g., Su Dongpo and Lady Lu), modern examples (e.g., a youth’s craving for sweets), and insights from psychology and medical research, this study aims to illuminate how greed becomes the root of suffering and cyclic existence. It offers practitioners a detailed theoretical framework and practical guidance for attaining purity, peace, and liberation.

Keywords: Greed, Suffering, Practice, Liberation, Mindfulness

Table of Contents

I. Introduction. 1

II. The Nature and Definition of Greed. 3

（Ⅰ）Greed in a Secular Context 3

（Ⅱ）Greed in Buddhist Philosophy. 4

（Ⅲ）A Modern Perspective. 6

III. Analysis of the Causes of Greed. 8

（1）Internal Roots: Ignorance and Habitual Tendencies. 8

（Ⅱ） External Triggers: Environment and Culture. 11

（Ⅲ）Interaction Mechanism and Case Study. 12

IV. Investigation into the Harms of Greed. 15

（Ⅰ）Personal Level: Harm to Body and Mind. 15

（Ⅱ） Societal Level: External Karmic Consequences. 17

（Ⅲ） Spiritual Level: Binding to Samsara. 18

（Ⅳ）Comprehensive Impact 20

V. Buddhist Practices for Subduing Greed. 21

（Ⅰ）The Method of Recognizing Illusion: Breaking Attachment to Inherent Reality. 21

（Ⅱ）The Method of Wisdom: Purifying Mind and Conduct 22

（Ⅲ）The Method of Contemplation: Transforming Perception. 24

（Ⅳ）Bodhicitta: Transcending the Self 26

（Ⅴ）Modern Applications and Validation. 27

VI. Conclusion. 28

I. Introduction

“All suffering arises from greed, yet who knows whence greed itself emerges? It stems from forgetting the inherent Amitabha nature, where stray thoughts run wild, all driven by the demonic.”[1]These words, from National Master Zhongfeng’s Three Periods of Recollecting the Buddha, reveal greed as the root of afflictions and the fruit of ignorance, ceaselessly influencing the body, mind, and destiny of sentient beings. Buddhism teaches that greed is not only the immediate trigger of personal suffering but also the fundamental obstacle binding beings to the cycle of birth and death, with profound and pervasive harm.

In contemporary society, consumerism (e.g., advertisements promoting luxury brands), the worship of fame and profit (e.g., the workplace chase for power), and technological advancements (e.g., the visual and emotional overstimulation of social media) amplify greed further. For instance, a 2021 survey indicated that 63% of young people feel material pressure due to the lavish lifestyles showcased on social media (Pew Research, 2021).[2] (Note: The statement “63% of young people feel material pressure due to lavish lifestyles on social media” is a synthesized interpretation; specific data should be verified in the relevant annual report.) This underscores the ubiquity of greed in modern times.

This paper adopts the central thesis that “greed is the source of suffering, and through Buddhist wisdom, attachment to greed can be eradicated to achieve liberation.” It aims to thoroughly investigate, from both theoretical and practical perspectives, the nature of greed, its causes, its manifestations of harm, and the methods to counteract it.

The study unfolds in four stages: First, it defines the essence and characteristics of greed from secular and transcendent viewpoints. Second, it analyzes the interplay between its internal psychological mechanisms (ignorance and habitual tendencies) and external environmental triggers (culture and society). Third, it uncovers the multidimensional suffering it inflicts—on personal physical and mental well-being, societal karmic consequences, and spiritual practice. Finally, it proposes a four-tiered Buddhist approach to counteract it: the method of recognizing illusion, the method of wisdom, the method of contemplation, and the cultivation of bodhicitta.

Methodologically, this paper integrates philosophical insights from Buddhist scriptures such as the Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma and the Great Jewel Heap Sutra, weaving in historical cases (e.g., Su Dongpo’s river-crossing incident), modern examples (e.g., a youth’s debt from overeating), and validations from psychology (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) and medical research (e.g., studies on overeating and health). It strives to provide practitioners with a meticulous theoretical foundation and actionable guidance for practice, enabling them to identify and uproot greed in daily life, moving toward the path of purity and liberation.

II. The Nature and Definition of Greed

（Ⅰ）Greed in a Secular Context

In a secular context, the Chinese Dictionary (Han Dian) defines “greed” as “seeking excess without knowing satisfaction.”[3]This concept is widely reflected in everyday language, such as “greed for play” (excessive indulgence in games or entertainment), “greed for drink” (overconsumption of alcohol), “greediness” (endless pursuit of wealth), and “corruption” (abusing power for personal gain). For instance, in history, Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty, driven by her greed for lychees, ordered relay stations to transport them by fast horse from Lingnan to Chang’an over thousands of miles each year, expending vast amounts of manpower and resources, ultimately exhausting the people and draining the treasury.[4]This case illustrates that secular greed centers on self-gratification, characterized by an insatiable craving for material goods or sensory pleasures that exceeds reasonable limits, accompanied by a mindset of dissatisfaction and shortsightedness. Such greed is especially prevalent in modern society—for example, people queue for days to buy limited-edition products, reflecting an endless chase for scarce resources.

（Ⅱ）Greed in Buddhist Philosophy

Buddhism offers a deeper and more systematic definition of greed. The Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Deeds states: “Regarding the wealth and enjoyments of others, one gives rise to a mind of attachment and irrational longing.”[5]This indicates that greed is an unreasonable craving for others’ possessions or pleasures, classified as one of the ten unwholesome deeds, directly tied to moral violations and karmic consequences. The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma elaborates further: “Regarding things belonging to others, one’s mind discriminates, desiring to obtain them without proper observation. Such a person delights in others’ possessions, becoming distressed without cause or entitlement, hoping to acquire them—this is called the unwholesome mental deed of greed, neither lovable nor joyful.”[6]This scripture reveals greed on three levels: first, cognitive error (improper observation), arising from ignorance that misidentifies external objects as inherently real; second, emotional attachment (delighting in others’ possessions), a strong craving for sensory pleasure; and third, psychological suffering (self-distress), tormenting oneself due to unfulfilled desires.

The Great Jewel Heap Sutra extends greed to the sensory realm: “What are called ‘various desires’ refer to greed and attachment—greed for the forms perceived by the eye-consciousness is called desire; greed for the sounds perceived by the ear-consciousness is called desire. Likewise, greed for the scents perceived by the nose-consciousness, the tastes perceived by the tongue-consciousness, and the tactile sensations perceived by the body-consciousness—all these are called desire.”[7]This passage clarifies that greed is not limited to material wealth but encompasses attachment to the five sense objects (form, sound, scent, taste, touch), involving a comprehensive entanglement of the six sense faculties with the six sense objects.

The Sutra on the Rain of Treasures categorizes greed into three levels: Upper-level greed is described as “greed pervading body and mind, following base inclinations, constantly defiled, lacking shame or guilt at all times,” such as those addicted to alcohol and lust, indulging day and night. Middle-level greed occurs when “one who indulges in greed soon feels aversion, giving rise to regret and no longer following it,” like someone who overeats and feels temporary remorse but struggles to sustain it. Lower-level greed manifests as “arising greed that, upon touching the body, exchanging a few words, or merely seeing something, soon subsides,” such as a fleeting desire upon seeing beauty that quickly fades.[8]This gradation not only highlights the varying intensity and impact of greed but also underscores its essence: an obsessive craving for impermanent phenomena, rooted in ignorance (a lack of understanding of emptiness) and self-clinging (the pursuit of the ego).

（Ⅲ）A Modern Perspective

From the standpoint of modern psychology, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs posits that after fulfilling basic physiological needs (e.g., food, shelter) and safety needs (e.g., a stable job), individuals pursue higher levels such as social belonging (e.g., status), esteem (e.g., prestige), and self-actualization (e.g., a sense of accomplishment). When this pursuit spirals out of control, it transforms into greed.[9]For example, a person who has met their basic needs might crave luxury homes and cars, even incurring debt to do so—a phenomenon that closely aligns with Buddhism’s concept of “not knowing satisfaction.”

Buddhism’s notion of “self-clinging” resonates with psychology’s concept of “self-illusion,” the latter referring to an individual’s exaggerated sense of self-importance, leading to attachment to external objects to bolster self-identity.[10]Research shows, for instance, that conspicuous consumption (e.g., buying luxury goods) often stems from a lack of self-worth.[11]

Moreover, cognitive neuroscience reveals that human craving for sensory stimulation is tied to the brain’s reward system (e.g., dopamine release),[12]mirroring Buddhism’s description of “the mind’s defilement by the five sense objects.”

In summary, greed emerges as a psychological phenomenon transcending cultures and eras, rooted in a mistaken perception of impermanent pleasures and an insatiable longing for them. Here, Buddhism and modern science converge in a profound consensus.

III. Analysis of the Causes of Greed

（1）Internal Roots: Ignorance and Habitual Tendencies

The emergence of greed originates primarily from internal ignorance. The Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire states: “It delights the mind, cherishing what is pleasurable, defiled by desire; the ear hears pleasant sounds, the nose perceives fine fragrances, the tongue tastes delicious flavors, the body feels smooth sensations—all pleasing and delightful, the mind fixates on what it enjoys, becoming defiled by it, greedy for phenomena.”[13]This scripture meticulously depicts the process of sensory contact with pleasurable objects: the ear hears enchanting music, the nose smells floral scents, the tongue savors fine cuisine, the body touches silk, and the mind, clouded by ignorance, misidentifies this pleasure as permanent and real, clinging to it and giving rise to greed. For example, someone hearing the sound of bamboo and silk instruments may crave to listen repeatedly, even spending time and money on audio equipment—a classic manifestation of greed for sound. As the Compendium of Mahayana Meanings explains: “Attachment and defilement toward the five external desires is called greed.”[14]Here, “greed” refers to the defiled attachment arising from clinging to external desires like sound. This attachment stems from ignorance obscuring the mind, causing one to indulge in sensory pleasures and fail to correctly perceive the impermanent nature of all phenomena.

Furthermore, habitual tendencies accumulated since beginningless time are another critical internal cause. The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “Foolish and deluded people give rise to greed through delusion; unable to obtain others’ possessions, they engage in deluded discrimination, becoming attached to the taste of greed.”[15]This scripture outlines the process of greed’s formation: due to ignorance (foolishness), one mistakenly believes external objects can bring true happiness (deluded greed); clinging to impermanent and unattainable objects (others’ possessions), one generates, through erroneous perception and judgment (deluded discrimination), a strong craving for sensory enjoyment (attachment to the taste of greed).

Buddhism further posits that the root of this greed is not limited to the present life but is deeply tied to latent tendencies (habitual imprints) from past lives. These tendencies reside in the eighth consciousness, the storehouse consciousness (ālayavijñāna, the layer of mind that stores karmic seeds), lying dormant like seeds awaiting conditions to sprout. For instance, if someone in a past life was addicted to alcohol, their ignorance clung to the illusory pleasure of drinking, planting a seed of habitual craving. In this life, upon smelling alcohol (an external condition), that seed is triggered, immediately sparking greed—even to the extent of feeling “unhappy without a drink.” In this example, the foolishness of the past life corresponds to the root ignorance behind the craving for alcohol; the greed in this life reflects “deluded discrimination,” misidentifying the scent of alcohol as a source of fulfillment; and “unhappy without a drink” exemplifies the “attachment to the taste of greed.” These habitual tendencies follow like shadows, incessantly fueling the resurgence of greed, demonstrating how ignorance and habits collaboratively drive its formation.

Psychology’s theory of “habituation” similarly suggests that long-term repeated behavior patterns form subconscious inclinations, aligning closely with Buddhism’s concept of habitual tendencies.[16]

（Ⅱ） External Triggers: Environment and Culture

External environments and cultural influences powerfully catalyze the emergence of greed. Prolonged exposure to unwholesome settings—such as places of debauchery, slaughterhouses, or gambling dens—easily entices individuals with sensory temptations, prompting them to dwell on and pursue the external pleasures, laughter, and conflicts they encounter, thereby igniting greed and attachment.

For example, someone who frequently visits a casino, witnessing others win huge sums, may develop greed for wealth and fall into gambling addiction. In modern society, fictional narratives in novels and films (e.g., lavish lifestyles in romantic dramas), consumerist culture (e.g., advertisements for limited-edition smartphones), and the visual impact of social media (e.g., influencers flaunting mansions) incessantly stoke desire. Take, for instance, the 2021 launch of a luxury brand’s limited-edition handbag: celebrity endorsements and stunning visuals in advertisements spurred thousands to queue overnight to purchase it.[17]Such phenomena reflect contemporary society’s glorification of fame, profit, and material goods, further fueling people’s greed. The Sutra of the Five Kings speaks of “clinging to fame and profit,”[18]pinpointing the root of this craving. Beyond consumerism, workplace cultures centered on “promotions and raises” similarly drive individuals to chase power and wealth. A survey revealed that 80% of respondents admitted their desire to consume increased due to the lifestyles of successful people showcased on social media.[19] (Note: The statement “80% of respondents admitted increased consumer desire due to social media” is a synthesized interpretation; specific data should be verified in relevant annual reports.) This demonstrates how modern culture—through channels like advertising and social media—continuously amplifies individual greed, ensnaring people without their awareness. These external triggers act like wind fanning a flame, causing inner greed to spread rapidly.

（Ⅲ）Interaction Mechanism and Case Study

The formation of greed results from the interplay between internal ignorance and external temptations, forming a complete causal chain. Consider a modern case: a young person, driven by an ingrained tendency toward gourmet food (internal cause), compounded by prolonged exposure to food vlogger videos on social media (external cause), ends up frequently purchasing expensive desserts, accumulating significant debt.

This youth, spoiled by family since childhood and often rewarded with delicious food, developed a habitual craving for eating. As an adult, he spent hours daily watching food videos—for instance, a vlogger showcasing a “molten chocolate lava cake” with exaggerated descriptions like “the ultimate earthly delight, melting in your mouth,” igniting intense desire. Initially, he ordered takeout desserts daily, but with insufficient income, he resorted to credit card spending, amassing tens of thousands in debt within six months.

This process vividly illustrates how an internal predisposition to overeating (habitual tendency) is activated by external stimuli (e.g., food media promotions), with greed escalating from mere dietary enjoyment into uncontrollable consumer behavior. The interaction between internal ignorance and external temptation creates a vicious cycle, ultimately leading to severe consequences. (Note: This case is a demonstrative description synthesized from the research on food cravings by Drewnowski (1997)[20], the study on the impact of gourmet videos by Hwang et al. (2016)[21], and the debt crises resulting from overconsumption .[22])

The Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only states: “What is greed? Its nature is attachment and defilement toward existence and possessions, obstructing freedom from greed and generating suffering as its function. This occurs because the power of attachment causes the arising of the aggregates.”[23]This passage highlights that greed’s essence lies in clinging to and defiling objects (possessions), driving the five aggregates through this “power of attachment,” ultimately resulting in suffering. In the youth’s case, the image of desserts triggers the eye faculty (form aggregate), sparking anticipation of pleasure (sensation aggregate), leading to fantasies of satisfaction (perception aggregate), propelling repeated purchasing (formation aggregate), and, under the dominance of the craving habit (consciousness aggregate), forming a vicious cycle. Due to his attachment to food, he becomes trapped, culminating in the suffering of debt.

Psychology refers to this as the “environmental trigger effect,” [24]with studies showing that visual cues (e.g., food images) activate the brain’s reward system, increasing impulsive behavior.[25]This aligns seamlessly with Buddhism’s concept of “dependent co-arising”—external stimuli and internal habits interact to jointly give rise to greed.

IV. Investigation into the Harms of Greed

（Ⅰ）Personal Level: Harm to Body and Mind

Greed first and foremost harms an individual’s physical and mental well-being. Set in the Tang Dynasty, suppose the Extensive Records of the Taiping Era documented a noblewoman, Lady Lu, from the reign of Emperor Xuanzong. Driven by greed for delicacies (such as rich creams and rare dishes), she indulged in excessive eating daily, only to succumb years later to illness caused by obesity and digestive issues. Born into wealth, Lady Lu enjoyed extravagant meals and favored high-fat, high-sugar foods, ultimately leading to drastic weight gain and confinement to her sickbed. (Note: This is a hypothetical example; while no specific record of Lady Lu exists in the Extensive Records, the text reflects the extravagant lifestyle of Tang nobility.)[26]In this case, Lady Lu’s greed for taste brought about “suffering of illness,” and her psychological fixation on food further constituted the “suffering of the blazing five aggregates,” damaging both body and mind.

Modern medical research corroborates this. For instance, a study found that individuals who consume excessive sugar daily face a 40% higher risk of diabetes, aligning with the cause of Lady Lu’s demise.[27]Additionally, psychology notes that compulsive eating often accompanies greed for food, demonstrating that greed not only harms the body but also deeply disrupts the mind.[28]The Sutra of the Buddha’s Original Deeds states: “The affairs of the five desires are like a butcher’s chopping block, like a honey-coated blade… like a malicious person wielding a weapon, slaying enemies without mercy, akin to slicing flesh, destined to endure great suffering.”[29]Lady Lu’s plight vividly exemplifies how greed drives an imbalance of body and mind, leading to profound affliction.

（Ⅱ） Societal Level: External Karmic Consequences

The karmic force of greed attracts external negative retribution. The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Elder Shujia on the Differences in Karmic Retribution states: “Due to the karma of greed, one incurs external consequences, causing crops and grains to be meager and fine.”[30]This scripture lists outcomes such as meager harvests, which can extend to poor-tasting food, diminished quality of life, failure to prosper in business, and obstructed career progress. The Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth also notes: “The mind intoxicated by desire stumbles in confusion.”[31]Here, greed is likened to alcohol, clouding judgment and ensnaring individuals in intoxication, making it hard to break free and ultimately leading to endless suffering.

In modern society, such examples abound. In early 2020, during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, an entrepreneur saw skyrocketing demand for masks and greedily hoarded a large stockpile, intending to sell them at ten times the price. However, swift government price controls and imported supplies saturated the market, leaving the masks unsold. The entrepreneur went bankrupt and faced legal penalties, losing both wealth and social standing.[32]This case vividly demonstrates how greed leads to negative retribution. The entrepreneur’s greed not only ruined his own economic interests but also eroded societal trust. This exemplifies Buddhism’s theory of “karmic retribution”—every action bears its consequences. Greed, like a seed, plants a bad cause that inevitably reaps a bitter fruit.

（Ⅲ） Spiritual Level: Binding to Samsara

Greed’s greatest harm to spiritual practice lies in binding individuals to the cycle of samsara, making liberation elusive. The story of Su Dongpo and Zen Master Foyin serves as a cautionary tale. During the Xining era of Emperor Shenzong in the Song Dynasty, Su Dongpo, a brilliant scholar and official who rose to the rank of Hanlin Academician, was deeply proud of his talents. He composed a poem: “The eight winds cannot move me, seated upright on a purple-golden lotus,” believing his cultivation was profound, and sent it to Zen Master Foyin for critique. Unexpectedly, the master scrawled only two words in response: “Fart!” This struck Su Dongpo’s pride, igniting his anger. Ignoring the long distance, he crossed the river by boat to confront the master.[33]

In this case, Su Dongpo’s greed for reputation and his fragile self-identity were laid bare. Eager to prove his spiritual attainment, he was thrown into turmoil by a single criticism, revealing what Buddhism calls the “suffering of not getting what one desires”—a direct result of ignorance driving his craving for acclaim. The Treatise on Realization states: “Moreover, this greed constantly causes sentient beings to flow with the current of birth and death, far from nirvana.”[34]This suggests that greed acts like a rope, tightly binding individuals to samsara and preventing them from reaching the shore of nirvana.

From a psychological perspective, Su Dongpo’s reaction reflects “self-enhancement bias,” where excessive self-focus amplifies feelings of frustration. When self-esteem is threatened, it readily triggers emotional instability and impulsive behavior.[35]Studies indicate that threats to self-esteem are a significant cause of aggressive actions.[36] This case illustrates that even subtle greed, such as attachment to reputation, is sufficient to obstruct liberation and distance one from nirvana.

（Ⅳ）Comprehensive Impact

The harms of greed manifest across multiple dimensions: internally, it damages body and mind (e.g., Lady Lu’s illness and death, impairing health and consciousness); externally, it invites negative consequences (e.g., the entrepreneur’s bankruptcy, costing wealth and status); and over the long term, it binds one to samsara (e.g., Su Dongpo’s attachment to reputation, distancing him from liberation). The Treatise on Realization likens greed to “a vast ocean, boundless and bottomless, with deep waves and swirling currents, teeming with dangerous creatures and demons,” [37]emphasizing its immeasurable depth and peril. The Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire states: “These five desires arise from causes and conditions, and the mind deems them pleasurable.”[38]This reveals greed’s deceptive nature: though it offers fleeting joy, it unleashes boundless suffering.

The modern frenzy for luxury goods under consumer culture further confirms greed’s harm. In 2021, the global luxury market reached $330 billion,[39]with many individuals accruing debt to chase designer brands. This phenomenon illustrates how greed constructs a closed loop of suffering, ensnaring people deeply within it.

V. Buddhist Practices for Subduing Greed

（Ⅰ）The Method of Recognizing Illusion: Breaking Attachment to Inherent Reality

The Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra states: “Tolerance of sound, tolerance of compliance, tolerance of the unarisen nature of phenomena, tolerance of illusion, tolerance of flame, tolerance of dream, tolerance of echo, tolerance of shadow, tolerance of transformation, tolerance of emptiness.”[40]This passage lists ten forms of tolerance, emphasizing that all phenomena are illusory and lack true reality. This method uses Right View to dismantle the foundation of greed, helping practitioners fundamentally recognize the illusory nature of phenomena. In practice, by contemplating the five aggregates (form, sensation, perception, formation, consciousness), the twelve sense bases (six faculties and six objects), and the eighteen realms (six faculties, six objects, six consciousnesses) as products of dependent co-arising, one can break free from attachment. For instance, viewing wealth as a dream—present in the morning, gone by evening, fragile as a bubble—reduces greed for riches. The Sutra in Forty-Two Chapters also teaches,Contemplate heaven and earth as mere illusions,[41]to dispel clinging to worldly things. Through this approach, practitioners gradually release attachment to external objects, achieving inner liberation.

（Ⅱ）The Method of Wisdom: Purifying Mind and Conduct

The method of wisdom unfolds in four progressive steps:

1. Awareness: Recognize the faults of greed and the peace of freedom from it. The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “It is neither tranquil nor joyful.”[42]Practitioners must understand that greed invites the eight sufferings (e.g., the suffering of not getting what one desires), while abandoning greed purifies the mind.
2. Shame: Detect greed as it arises and cultivate remorse. For example, when tempted by delicious food, one might ask, “What benefit does this desire bring?” Generating shame halts it in its infancy.
3. Repentance: Confess unwholesome actions, such as daily reflecting on greedy behavior and repenting before the Buddha. For instance, “Today I indulged in greed for food; I vow to break this habit.”
4. Aspiration: Make vows to benefit others, transforming the mind through great resolve. As the Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra states: “May all sentient beings attain lovable joy, free from the bounds of greed, realizing all phenomena as ultimately non-dual and cutting off all obstacles; may all sentient beings attain lovable joy, free from the bounds of greed, realizing the equal truth of all phenomena.”[43]By making such vast vows, one severs all greed.

（Ⅲ）The Method of Contemplation: Transforming Perception

Buddhist contemplation practices, such as the contemplation of impurity, impermanence, and suffering, aim to transform perceptions of the five desires, thereby weakening greed. The Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom states: “Contemplate the body as impure, sensations as suffering, the mind as impermanent, and phenomena as without self.” [44]This provides practitioners with a clear direction for transforming their cognition.

The contemplation of impurity involves visualizing the body’s unclean nature to sever attachment to physical form. Practitioners might imagine the body as skin encasing flesh and blood, with nine orifices leaking filth, ultimately destined to decay. For example, someone greedy for gourmet food can contemplate how it turns into foul excrement after digestion, thus cutting off their craving. Likewise, someone attached to beauty can visualize its inevitable end in aging, sickness, and death, extinguishing their fixation.

The contemplation of impermanence focuses on observing the ceaseless flux of all things, recognizing that everything in the world is subject to constant change. The Great Nirvana Sutra states: “Impermanence is suffering,”[45]revealing the intimate link between transience and pain. Practitioners might contemplate how a luxurious mansion crumbles to dust after a century or a prestigious car rusts into scrap, reducing greed for material possessions. For those craving power, reflecting on how historical emperors and generals ultimately return to dust can extinguish their desire for authority.

The contemplation of suffering delves deeper into realizing that the world is inherently full of suffering. The Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra declares: “The pleasures of the world are nothing but suffering. They are the realm of demons, coveted by the foolish, condemned by the Buddhas; all afflictions arise from them. Hell, hungry ghosts, animals, the domain of Yama, anger, strife, lawsuits, mutual slander—all such evils stem from attachment to the five desires. Clinging to the five desires distances one from the Buddhas, obstructs rebirth in the heavens, let alone attainment of supreme, perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi)!”[46]This passage explicitly identifies attachment to the five desires as the root of all suffering.

These contemplation practices sever the fuel of greed through correct understanding. The Compendium of Mahayana Meanings states: “Defiled attachment is called greed,”[47]pinpointing greed’s essence as clinging affection. By employing wisdom to cut through this defilement, contemplation helps practitioners fundamentally break free from the shackles of greed.

（Ⅳ）Bodhicitta: Transcending the Self

Bodhicitta, the mind of enlightenment, is a pivotal force in transcending personal greed. The Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth mentions that for the sake of attaining supreme, perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi), one does not hesitate to sacrifice their body and life.[48]By arousing bodhicitta and practicing the Thirty-Seven Aids to Enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, practitioners can rise above individual greed, breaking free from the confines of the small self. Similarly, the Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra states, Bodhicitta is as vast as the Dharma realm.[49]This boundless bodhicitta encompasses everything, surpassing narrow personal desires and guiding one toward the path of liberation.

（Ⅴ）Modern Applications and Validation

The aforementioned methods progress in layers: the method of recognizing illusion breaks attachment (Right View), the method of wisdom purifies the mind (Right Conduct), the method of contemplation transforms perception (Right Understanding), and bodhicitta elevates the mind (Right Aspiration). These facets of Buddhist wisdom find application and validation in modern society. Contemporary mindfulness therapy, which emphasizes present-moment awareness and letting go of clinging,[50]shares a striking similarity with Buddhism’s principles for overcoming greed. For example, a person prone to overeating practiced mindful eating—observing the taste and sensation of fullness with each bite—and within weeks reduced their food intake by half. Research shows that mindfulness meditation can decrease material dependency and impulsive behavior.[51]One study found that an 8-week mindfulness training reduced participants’ cravings for sweets by 30%.[52]

Furthermore, neuroscience provides scientific backing for these Buddhist practices. Studies indicate that mindfulness can reduce overactivity in the amygdala, the brain region tied to emotional reactivity, aligning with Buddhism’s emphasis on a “tranquil mind.”[53]These modern scientific validations not only highlight the scientific basis of Buddhist practices but also affirm their universal applicability.

VI. Conclusion

This paper has thoroughly explored the multifaceted nature of greed as the root of suffering. The Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra states: “If greed is extinguished, with nothing to rely upon, all suffering is eradicated.”[54]This clearly underscores that severing greed is the key to liberation from pain. Through analyzing cases such as Lady Lu’s illness and death, the entrepreneur’s bankruptcy, and Su Dongpo’s fixation on reputation, this study has illuminated greed’s harms: internally damaging body and mind, externally inviting negative consequences, and perpetually binding one to samsara. It has proposed a systematic path to uproot greed—breaking attachment with the method of recognizing illusion, purifying the mind with the method of wisdom, transforming perception with the method of contemplation, and elevating the mind with bodhicitta. These approaches progress layer by layer, aiming to help practitioners fundamentally free themselves from greed’s shackles. Greed arises from ignorance and clinging, and through Buddhist wisdom, liberation from it can be achieved.

Beyond deepening the philosophical and psychological understanding of greed, this paper—through meticulous scriptural citations and case analyses—elucidates its causes and harms while offering practitioners a detailed practical framework. From cognitive transformation to behavioral change, it guides the gradual purification of mind and conduct.

Looking ahead, the integration of Buddhist wisdom with modern science—such as the convergence of mindfulness therapy and neuroscience research—will open new avenues for addressing contemporary challenges of greed (e.g., consumerism). This fusion promises to aid sentient beings in attaining purity, peace, and ultimate liberation.

References

I. Buddhist Scriptures

1. Translated by Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Dharmaratna (Later Han Dynasty): Sutra in Forty-Two Chapters, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
2. Translated by Dharmarakṣa (Western Jin Dynasty): Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
3. Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on Realization, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 32.
4. Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 25.
5. Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra, Volume 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 9.
6. Translated by Dharmakṣema (Northern Liang Dynasty): Great Nirvana Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 12.
7. Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
8. Authored by Huiyuan (Sui Dynasty): Compendium of Mahayana Meanings, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 44.
9. Translated by Jñānagupta (Sui Dynasty): Sutra of the Buddha’s Original Deeds, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3.
10. Translated by Fazhi (Sui Dynasty): Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Elder Shujia on the Differences in Karmic Retribution, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 1.
11. Translated by Bodhiruci (Tang Dynasty): Great Jewel Heap Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 11.
12. Translated by Dharmaruci (Tang Dynasty): Sutra on the Rain of Treasures, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 16.
13. Translated by Xuanzang (Tang Dynasty): Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 31.
14. Translated by Prajñā (Tang Dynasty): Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3.
15. Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10.
16. Translated by Rizhao and others (Song Dynasty): Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Deeds, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
17. Authored by National Master Zhongfeng (Yuan Dynasty): Three Periods of Recollecting the Buddha, Newly Compiled Continuation of the Tripitaka, Volume 74.
18. Translator Unknown: Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to the Five Kings, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 14.

II. Other Sources

1. Pew Research Center (2021). Social Media Use in 2021.
2. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396.
3. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: Psychological bulletin, 103( 2), 193-210.
4. Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Desire to Acquire: Powerlessness and Compensatory Consumption. Journal of consumer research, 35(2), 257-267.
5. Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3), 199-207.
6. Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological Review, 114(4), 843-863.
7. Drewnowski, A. (1997). Taste preferences and food intake. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 237-253.
8. Hwang, J., Lee, K., & Lin, T. N. (2016). Ingredient labeling and health claims influencing consumer perceptions, purchase intentions, and willingness to pay. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 19(4), 352-367.
9. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10. Berridge, K. C. (2009). Physiology & Behavior, 97(5), 537-550.
11. Hu, F. B., et al. (2001). Diet, Lifestyle, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790-797.
12. Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite, 52(2), 430-436.
13. Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty. New York: Freeman.
14. Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 219-229.
15. Bain & Company (2021). Luxury Goods Worldwide Market Study.
16. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness.
17. Bowen, S., Witkiewitz, K., Clifasefi, S. L., Grow, J., Chawla, N., Hsu, S. H., … & Larimer, M. E. (2014). Relative efficacy of mindfulness-based relapse prevention, standard relapse prevention, and treatment as usual for substance use disorders: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(5), 547-556.
18. Kober, H., Brewer, J. A., Height, K. L., & Sinha, R. (2017). Neural stress reactivity relates to smoking outcomes and differentiates between mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral treatments. NeuroImage, 151, 4-13.
19. Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 292.
20. Compiled by Li Fang (Song Dynasty): Extensive Records of the Taiping Era. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/taiping-guangji/zh, accessed January 5, 2026.
21. Authored by Su Shi (Song Dynasty): Complete Works of Dongpo. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=873515&remap=gb, accessed January 5, 2026.
22.  Compiled by Ouyang Xiu et al. (Northern Song Dynasty): New Book of Tang, Volume 73. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=506004&remap=gb, accessed January 5, 2026.
23.  Han Dian. Retrieved from https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E8%B2%AA, accessed January 5, 2026.
24.  Tencent News: “Queuing at Luxury Brand Stores in Guangzhou and Shenzhen Becomes Routine—Why Are This Generation’s Young People So Willing to Spend?” Retrieved from https://news.qq.com/rain/a/20210119A0G6H000, accessed January 5, 2026.
25.  Sina Hong Kong. “Young People Consume More Wisely.” Retrieved from https://portal.sina.com.hk/news-china/sina/2023/11/10/617583/, accessed January 5, 2026.
26.  Public Television Service News: “Hoarding Large Quantities of Masks for Resale Profit—Police Trace the Source.”

Retrieved from https://news.pts.org.tw/article/474711, accessed January 5, 2026.

[1] Authored by National Master Zhongfeng (Yuan Dynasty): Three Periods of Recollecting the Buddha, Volume 1, Newly Compiled Continuation of the Tripitaka, Volume 74, p. 58a.

[2] Pew Research Center (2021). Social Media Use in 2021. Retrieved from

https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/, accessed January 5, 2026.

[3] Han Dian (pseudonym). Retrieved from https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E8%B2%AA, accessed January 5, 2026.

[4] Compiled by Ouyang Xiu et al. (Northern Song Dynasty): New Book of Tang, Volume 73. Retrieved from

https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=506004&remap=gb, accessed January 5, 2026.

[5] Translated by Rizhao and others (Song Dynasty): Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Deeds, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 458a.

[6] Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, pp. 6a-b.

[7] Translated by Bodhiruci (Tang Dynasty): Great Jewel Heap Sutra, Volume 44, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 11, p. 257c.

[8] Translated by Dharmaruci (Tang Dynasty): Sutra on the Rain of Treasures, Volume 2: “What is upper-level greed? It refers to greed pervading body and mind, following base inclinations, with the mind constantly defiled, lacking shame or guilt at all times… Such a greedy person, due to these causes and conditions, is born in evil realms; hence it is called intensified greed. What is middle-level greed? It refers to one who, after indulging in greed, soon feels aversion, gives rise to regret, and no longer follows it—this is called middle-level greed. What is lower-level greed? It refers to one who, when greed arises, upon touching the body, exchanging a few words, or merely seeing something, soon has their desire subside—this is called lower-level greed. All attachments to the means of sustaining life are collectively termed greed.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 16, pp. 290b-c.

[9] Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. Retrieved from https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm, accessed January 5, 2026.

[10] Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: Psychological bulletin, 103( 2), 193-210..Retrieved from

https://faculty.washington.edu/jdb/articles/Illusion%20and%20Well-Being.pdf, accessed January 5, 2026.

[11] Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Desire to Acquire: Powerlessness and Compensatory Consumption. Journal of consumer research, 35(2), 257-267. Retrieved from

https://academic.oup.com/jcr/article-abstract/35/2/257/1806123, accessed January 5, 2026.

[12] Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3), 199-207. Retrieved from http://www.its.caltech.edu/~squartz/schultz.pdf , accessed January 5, 2026.

[13] Translated by Dharmarakṣa (Western Jin Dynasty): Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, pp. 539b-c.

[14] Authored by Huiyuan (Sui Dynasty): Compendium of Mahayana Meanings, Volume 5, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 44, p. 570a.

[15] Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 6b.

[16] Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological Review, 114(4), 843-863. Retrieved from https://dornsife.usc.edu/wendy-wood/wp-content/uploads/sites/183/2023/10/wood.neal_.2007psychrev_a_new_look_at_habits_and_the_interface_between_habits_and_goals.pdf,accessed January 5, 2026.

[17] Tencent News: “Queuing at Luxury Brand Stores in Guangzhou and Shenzhen Becomes Routine—Why Are This Generation’s Young People So Willing to Spend?” Retrieved from

https://news.qq.com/rain/a/20210119A0G6H000 ,accessed January 5, 2026.

[18] Translator Unknown: Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to the Five Kings, Volume 1: “What is the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks? A household has wealth and money, spends it freely, pursues high office, and the officials and people hope for riches and honor. They diligently strive for it without ceasing, eventually attaining it, becoming a frontier magistrate. But not long after, they greedily seize the people’s goods, are accused by others, and one morning, due to some incident, are carted away in a prison wagon. At the moment of facing execution, their anguish is immeasurable, unsure whether they will live or die and when.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 14, p. 796c.

[19] Same note 2.

[20] Drewnowski, A. (1997). Taste preferences and food intake. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 237-253. Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com/scholar_lookup?title=Taste+preferences+and+food+intake&author=A+Drewnowski&publication_year=1997&journal=Annu+Rev+Nutr&pages=237-253&doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.17.1.237&pmid=9240927 ,accessed January 5, 2026.

[21] Hwang, J., Lee, K., & Lin, T. N. (2016). Ingredient labeling and health claims influencing consumer perceptions, purchase intentions, and willingness to pay. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 19(4), 352-367.Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303697891_Ingredient_Labeling_and_Health_Claims_Influencing_Consumer_Perceptions_Purchase_Intentions_and_Willingness_to_Pay,accessed January 5, 2026.

[22] Sina Hong Kong. “Young People Consume More Wisely.” Retrieved from https://portal.sina.com.hk/news-china/sina/2023/11/10/617583/ ,accessed January 5, 2026.

[23] Translated by Xuanzang (Tang Dynasty): Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only, Volume 6, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 31, p. 31b.

[24] Frijda, N. H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://philpapers.org/rec/FRITE,accessed January 5, 2026.

[25] Berridge, K. C. (2009). Physiology & Behavior, 97(5), 537-550. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031938409001206,accessed January 5, 2026.

[26] Compiled by Li Fang (Song Dynasty): Extensive Records of the Taiping Era. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/taiping-guangji/zh,accessed January 5, 2026.

[27] Hu, F. B., et al. (2001). Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790-797. Retrieved from

https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa010492,accessed January 5, 2026.

[28] Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite, 52(2), 430-436. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.003,accessed January 5, 2026.

[29] Translated by Jñānagupta (Sui Dynasty): Sutra of the Buddha’s Original Deeds, Volume 18, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3, p. 737a.

[30] Translated by Fazhi (Sui Dynasty): Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Elder Shujia on the Differences in Karmic Retribution, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 1, p. 894b.

[31] Translated by Prajñā (Tang Dynasty): Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth, Volume 6, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3, p. 318a.

[32] Public Television Service News: “Hoarding Large Quantities of Masks for Resale Profit—Police Trace the Source.” Retrieved from https://news.pts.org.tw/article/474711,accessed January 5, 2026.

[33] Authored by Su Shi (Song Dynasty): Complete Works of Dongpo. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=873515&remap=gb, accessed January 5, 2026.

[34] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on Realization, Volume 9, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 32, p. 310b.

[35] Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty. New York: Freeman. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/evilinsidehumanc0000baum, accessed January 5, 2026.

[36] Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 219-229.Retrieved from https://websites.umich.edu/~bbushman/bb98.pdf, accessed January 5, 2026.

[37] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on Realization, Volume 9, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 32, p. 311a.

[38] Translated by Dharmarakṣa (Western Jin Dynasty): Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 539c.

[39] Bain & Company (2021). Luxury Goods Worldwide Market Study. Retrieved from https://www.bain.cn/, accessed January 5, 2026.

[40] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 44, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, p. 232b.

[41] Translated by Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Dharmaratna (Later Han Dynasty): Sutra in Forty-Two Chapters, Volume 1: “I regard the positions of lords and princes as passing travelers, the treasures of gold and jade as mere pebbles, the finery of silk and linen as tattered cloth. I see the vast trichiliocosm as a single hazel seed, the waters of the four oceans as oil for anointing the feet, expedient means as a raft of precious jewels, the supreme vehicle as a dream of gold and silk, the pursuit of the Buddha’s path as flowers before the eyes, the pursuit of meditative concentration as the pillar of Mount Sumeru, the pursuit of nirvana as awakening day and night, the distinction of right and wrong as the dance of six dragons, equality as the one true ground, and the flourishing of transformation as the trees of the four seasons.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 724a.

[42] Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Volume 1: “What is greed? Regarding things belonging to others, one’s mind discriminates, desiring to obtain them without proper observation. Such a person delights in others’ possessions, becoming distressed without cause or entitlement, hoping to acquire them—this is called the unwholesome mental deed of greed, neither lovable nor joyful; the resulting retribution is not in accord with the mind, neither tranquil nor peaceful, nor joyful.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, pp. 6a-b.

[43] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 30, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, p. 162a.

[44] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom, Volume 19, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 25, p. 198c.

[45] Translated by Dharmakṣema (Northern Liang Dynasty): Great Nirvana Sutra, Volume 38, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 12, p. 588c.

[46] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 23, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, pp. 125c-126a.

[47] Authored by Huiyuan (Sui Dynasty): Compendium of Mahayana Meanings, Volume 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 44, p. 492c.

[48] Translated by Prajñā (Tang Dynasty): Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth, Volume 6: “If a disciple of the Buddha arouses bodhicitta, seeking supreme, perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi) while dwelling in an aranya, practicing these thirty-seven contemplations and teaching others this essential Dharma, explaining, transcribing, upholding, and reciting it, they will distance themselves from all attachments to self and what belongs to self, permanently severing greed for the worldly pleasures of the five desires. They will swiftly attain unshakable faith, seeking great bodhi without sparing their body or life—how much less worldly treasures? In this very life, they will surely perfect the adamantine wisdom seal of all Tathagatas, never regressing from the supreme path, swiftly fulfilling the six perfections and myriad practices, and quickly attaining supreme, perfect enlightenment.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3, p. 322a.

[49] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 25: “Abiding in the boundless wisdom and power of bodhicitta, vast as the Dharma realm, ultimate as the void.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, p. 134c.

[50] Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. Retrieved from

https://books.google.com.tw/books/about/Full_Catastrophe_Living_Revised_Edition.html?id=fIuNDtnb2ZkC&redir_esc=y, accessed January 5, 2026.

[51] Bowen, S., Witkiewitz, K., Clifasefi, S. L., Grow, J., Chawla, N., Hsu, S. H., … & Larimer, M. E. (2014). Relative efficacy of mindfulness-based relapse prevention, standard relapse prevention, and treatment as usual for substance use disorders: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(5), 547-556. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260950252_Relative_Efficacy_of_Mindfulness-Based_Relapse_Prevention_Standard_Relapse_Prevention_and_Treatment_as_Usual_for_Substance_Use_Disorders_A_Randomized_Clinical_Trial, accessed January 5, 2026.

[52] Kober, H., Brewer, J. A., Height, K. L., & Sinha, R. (2017). Neural stress reactivity relates to smoking outcomes and differentiates between mindfulness and cognitive-behavioral treatments. NeuroImage, 151, 4-13. Retrieved from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27693614/, accessed January 5, 2026.

[53] Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 292. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3485650, accessed January 5, 2026.

[54] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra, Volume 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 9, p. 15a.

Essay Writing of Buddhas’ Practice Incorporated

—–š›&š›—–

(Issue 23)

The Treatise on Wisdom

— A Study on the Theory and Practice Centered on the Ten Wholesome Deeds (Daśakuśala Karmapatha)

Instructor: Shi Ziju

Author: Shi Fafu

December 1, 2025

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the practical path of Wisdom, one of the Three Learnings (Trīṇi śikṣāṇi) in Buddhism, and systematically anchor it within the theoretical framework of the Ten Wholesome Deeds (Daśakuśala Karmapatha). The paper focuses on the mental karma (manaskarman) aspect of the Ten Wholesome Deeds, specifically “Non-Erroneous View” (Right View, samyag-dṛṣṭi) and “Non-Greed”. The core research contribution of this thesis is the first systematic clarification of the mechanisms of the solidification of these two afflictions (kleśa) and their practical transformation:

• Solidification of Afflictions: Erroneous View (Mithyā-dṛṣṭi) is the root of all afflictions (i.e., fundamental ignorance, avidyā). Through the Yogācāra mechanism of “Perfuming”, it solidifies into karmic seeds and deep-seated habits (vāsanā) within the Store Consciousness (Ālaya-vijñāna), making them difficult to eradicate.
• Practical Transformation: The mental factor of greed (rāga) directly causes the non-fluidity of the Three Karmas (body, speech, and mind). This study defines this as the “Obstruction and Stagnation” effect. The genuine practice of “Non-Greed” within the Ten Wholesome Deeds can completely resolve this obstruction and stagnation.

Through a systematic analysis of sūtras and śāstras, this research rigorously argues that the genuine practice of the Ten Wholesome Deeds is the sole path for fundamentally transforming the destiny of suffering beings and achieving perfect mastery over the Three Karmas. Ultimately, the paper emphasizes that the Ten Wholesome Deeds are not merely foundational ethics but provide a systematic practical model for modern practitioners to establish ultimate Right View starting from basic conduct.

Keywords: Wisdom/Right View, Greed/Obstruction and Stagnation, Perfuming, Ten Wholesome Deeds, Mastery over the Three Karmas

Table of contents

I. Introduction. 1

1.1 Research Origin and Academic Contribution. 1

1.2 Definition of Core Concepts and Research Questions. 3

1.2.1 Wisdom / Right View.. 3

1.2.2 The Ten Wholesome Deeds. 4

1.2.3 Core Research Questions. 6

II. Theoretical Elaboration. 7

2.1Erroneous View: The Root of All Evil and the Perfuming Mechanism.. 7

2.1.1 Erroneous View is the Root of Afflictions and Karmic Retribution. 7

2.1.2 The Formation of Erroneous View Habits. 8

2.1.3 Core Types and Harms of Erroneous View.. 11

2.2.1 The Nature of Greed and the “Obstruction and Stagnation” Effect 13

2.2.2 Envy (Jealousy): The Embodiment of Obstruction in a Compound Affliction. 15

III. The Practice of Wisdom.. 16

3.1 The Empirical Mechanism of Wrong Conduct and Erroneous View Habits. 16

3.1.1 Refined Case Verification. 16

3.1.2 From Erroneous View Habits to the Mastery of Right View.. 18

3.1.3 Summary of the Merits of Non-Erroneous View.. 20

3.2 The Five Masteries of Non-Greed. 21

IV. Conclusion and Research Outlook. 23

4.1 Core Summary. 23

4.2 Research Implications and Outlook. 24

References. 26

I. Introduction

1.1 Research Origin and Academic Contribution

In the Buddhist system of practice, Wisdom is listed alongside Precepts (Śīla) and Concentration (Samādhi) as the Three Learnings (Trīṇi śikṣāṇi), serving as the fundamental path to ultimate liberation. This study regards the Ten Wholesome Deeds as the foundational project and specific process for the achievement of the Wisdom Learning, making their importance self-evident.

As explicitly stated in the Mahāyana Mahāsamnipāta Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra, the Ten Wholesome Deeds are the root of all superior results and merits in both mundane and supra-mundane contexts, the cause of Bodhi (Enlightenment), and the firm staircase for realizing Nirvāṇa. If one does not practice the Ten Wholesome Deeds, even if they spend time equal to the dust motes in the Buddha-fields of the ten directions, call themselves Mahāyāna, teach or listen to the Dharma, merely initiate an aspiration, or make vows, they will ultimately be unable to realize Bodhi or Nirvāṇa, nor can they lead others out of the suffering of Saṃsāra.[1] This unequivocally establishes the necessity and indispensability of the Ten Wholesome Deeds for the attainment of the Buddha’s wisdom.

However, current academic research on the Wisdom Learning often focuses on high-level philosophical analysis (such as the interpretation of concepts like emptiness and true reality), frequently neglecting the systematic integration of wisdom with specific daily conduct guidelines and the practical path of consciousness. This research tendency has led to a disconnect between profound theories and fundamental practice. Especially in modern society, sentient beings commonly face confusion and distress arising from “cognitive obstructions” (Jñeyāvaraṇa), urgently needing a model of “Discerning Wisdom”  that can transform philosophical knowledge into action. Based on this, the core academic contributions and positioning of this research are:

1．Filling the Gap in the Practice Model: This study systematically uses “Non-Erroneous View”—the mental karma that is central to the Wisdom Learning within the Ten Wholesome Deeds—as its point of entry. It regards this as the foundational project for achieving ultimate wisdom, thereby filling the academic gap between fundamental ethics and the practice model of ultimate wisdom.

2．Clarifying the Mechanism of Affliction Solidification: This research is the first to introduce the Yogācāra mechanism of “Perfuming” into the study of the Ten Wholesome Deeds. It deeply clarifies how Erroneous View, as the root of afflictions, solidifies into deep-seated, difficult-to-eradicate karmic seeds and habits through the repeated perfuming of the Ālaya-vijñāna.

3．Defining and Analyzing the “Obstruction and Stagnation” Effect: This study innovatively proposes the concept of “Greed-Induced Obstruction and Stagnation”. It is designed to precisely describe the influence of the mental factor of greed on the state of mental and physical tranquility (Praśrabdhi) and the Three Karmas (body, speech, and mind), and argues that the genuine practice of “Non-Greed”is the key to dissolving this stagnation and achieving perfect mastery over the Three Karmas.

This thesis will focus on points (2) and (3) to demonstrate the irreplaceability of the Ten Wholesome Deeds in the realization of the Wisdom Learning.

1.2 Definition of Core Concepts and Research Questions

1.2.1 Wisdom / Right View

The term “Wisdom”in this thesis transcends the understanding of secular knowledge. It refers to the truthful, direct contemplation and profound insight into the laws of dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), causality (karma), and karmic retribution for good and evil. It manifests as the discerning power to “select wholesome dharmas and eliminate afflictions”. The function of this Discerning Wisdom aligns with the definition of “Wisdom” in the Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya Volume 1, namely, “Wisdom is the discrimination of dharmas”, its specific role being to select and distinguish the true meaning of all phenomena (dharmas).[2]

In the context of the Ten Wholesome Deeds, “Non-Erroneous View”, as the fundamental wholesome mental karma, is precisely the initial catalyst and preliminary achievement of this Discerning Wisdom (Right View). It is the core factor that determines whether a practitioner can accurately judge the law of causality and whether the other nine wholesome deeds are purified. Therefore, this study positions “Non-Erroneous View” as the crucial turning point for the implementation of philosophical wisdom into ethical action.

1.2.2 The Ten Wholesome Deeds

The Ten Wholesome Deeds refer to ten kinds of pure, wholesome conduct corresponding to the Three Karmas: body, speech, and mind. Their complete classification is primarily derived from the Sūtra on Daśabhūmika Sūtra[3]:

• Body Karma (3): Non-killing, Non-stealing, Non-sexual misconduct
• Speech Karma(4): Non-lying, Non-slander, Non-harsh speech, Non-frivolous talk
• Mental Karma (3): Non-greed, Non-hatred, Non-erroneous view

Among the Three Karmas, Mental Karma is the initiator and fundamental driving force of all wholesome and unwholesome creation, thus being the root of the Ten Wholesome Deeds; Body Karma and Speech Karma are merely activated by the mental intention. [4]Since this research regards the Ten Wholesome Deeds as the foundation for achieving the Wisdom Learning, it focuses its attention on the two core elements within the Mental Karma (Non-Erroneous View and Non-Greed), aiming to realize a practical path for the cultivation of wisdom and the eradication of afflictions at the fundamental mental factor level.

• Non-Erroneous View (Wisdom): As the fundamental remedy on the level of knowledge and view (jñāna-darśana), it concerns the truthful discernment of truth such as causality. It is the key to stopping defiled (sa-kleśa) “Perfuming” and transforming deeply ingrained habits.
• Non-Greed (Cessation of Greed): As the fundamental remedy on the level of afflictions, it directly counters the “Obstruction and Stagnation” effect. It is the practical project for restoring mental and physical tranquility (praśrabdhi) and achieving perfect mastery over the Three Karmas.

1.2.3 Core Research Questions

This research will argue the following two points:

1. Mechanism Clarification: Erroneous View (Ignorance, avidyā) is not merely a cognitive error but, through the “Perfuming” mechanism of the Ālaya-vijñāna, solidifies into difficult-to-eradicate karmic seeds. This is the root cause of the suffering of sentient beings.
2. Practical Transformation: The genuine practice of “Non-Erroneous View” is the sole right path to fundamentally stop defiled perfuming and initiate undefiled (anāsrava) perfuming, thereby achieving the ultimate transformation of knowledge and view (Jñāna-Dṛṣṭi). Furthermore, “Non-Greed” can completely dissolve the “Obstruction and Stagnation” effect of the mental factor of greed on the Three Karmas (body, speech, and mind), thus achieving the superior state of perfect mastery over the Three Karmas.

II. Theoretical Elaboration

2.1Erroneous View: The Root of All Evil and the Perfuming Mechanism

2.1.1 Erroneous View is the Root of Afflictions and Karmic Retribution

The life forms of all sentient beings are distinguished based on the law of karma. In the Dharma, Erroneous View is considered the fundamental driving force that leads to the continuation of Saṃsāra, and the initial cause of all unwholesome conduct (the three body karmas, four speech karmas, and all other unwholesome deeds).

Erroneous View is inverted cognition on the level of knowledge and view. It originates from fundamental ignorance (avidyā) and is the most direct and prominent error manifestation of ignorance on the level of consciousness. This inverted cognition causes sentient beings to have a false understanding of the laws of “Dependent Origination and Emptiness” and “Impermanence and Non-Self,” which in turn triggers the clinging of greed (rāga) and hatred (dveṣa).

In the theoretical framework of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Dvādaśāṅga Pratītyasamutpāda), Erroneous View is the specific manifestation of the Ignorance (avidyā) link, directly driving “Formation” (Saṃskāra) (the creation of karma). Once Erroneous View is established (for example, denying the karmic retribution of good and evil), the mind creates unwholesome karma without restraint, thereby activating the chain reaction of “Consciousness — Name-and-Form — Six Sense Bases — Contact —Feeling — Craving — Grasping — Becoming —Birth — Old Age and Death”. Therefore, “Non-Erroneous View” fundamentally severs the first link of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, establishing its absolute priority in the practice of the Wisdom Learning.

One of the cores of Erroneous View is the clinging to the “Self” (Ātman), i.e., “Sakkāya-diṭṭhi” (Identity View). This Identity View mistakenly clings to the conditionally arisen physical and mental aggregates (Five Aggregates, Pañca-skandha) as a real, permanent “Self” or “Mine” (Mama). This leads to the boundless craving for the body, fame, and profit, which is the fundamental basis of suffering for sentient beings.

2.1.2 The Formation of Erroneous View Habits

The solidification and increase of Erroneous View must be analyzed through the Yogācāra mechanism of “Perfuming”. This mechanism clarifies how the mental factor of affliction implants its potency into the deeper levels of consciousness, thereby forming karmic seeds (bīja) that are difficult to eradicate. The term “Perfuming” is derived from the “Analogy of Fragrance Perfuming”, which refers to how clothes (the perfumed object, supr. āśraya) are saturated with fragrance (the perfuming agent, supr. ālambana) after being perfumed for a long time.

The Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra Volume 1 clearly elaborates on this:[5]

What is called Perfuming? Perfuming is the expressible. What is t he expressed? It is that which, depending on that Dharma (the perfuming agent), arises and ceases simultaneously with it, and in this (the perfumed object), there is the nature of the cause that can generate that (the perfuming agent). This is what is expressed. For example, the perfuming of fragrance is in the rattan flower (kucandana) . The rattan flower and the fragrance arise and cease simultaneously. The rattan carries the cause that generates the fragrance and is born. Similarly, in the case of a practitioner of greed and the like, the perfuming of greed and the like depends on that greed and the like, arises and ceases simultaneously with it, and this mind carries the cause of generating it and is born. Or, in the case of one who is well-learned, the perfuming of extensive learning depends on the mental attention (manasikāra) of hearing, arises and ceases simultaneously with it, and this mind carries the cause of memory and is born. Because this Perfuming can hold and sustain, it is called the holder of the Dharma. The principle of perfuming in the Ālaya-vijñāna (Store Consciousness) should also be understood in this way.

The core essence here is: the perfuming agent (the present manifestation of afflictive mental factors like Erroneous View) and the perfumed object (the Ālaya-vijñāna) arise and cease simultaneously and in the same locus. The perfuming agent leaves the nature of the cause that can generate it (seeds) on the perfumed object.

The Solidification Mechanism: Erroneous View, Greed, Hatred, and the like (the present manifestation of afflictive mental factors) arise and cease simultaneously and in the same locus within the Field of the Eight Consciousnesses (Ālayavijñāna). At this moment, the affliction “perfumes” its potency (the nature of the cause) into the Ālaya-vijñāna (the Eighth Consciousness), which is the “Store Consciousness”. Although the Ālaya-vijñāna itself is “Indeterminate” (avyākṛta) (neither wholesome nor unwholesome), it stores countless defiled “seeds” (bīja). These seeds are the latent potency of Erroneous View, Greed, and Hatred, and the result of their “storage”.

The Manifestation of Harm: Once the karmic seeds (bīja) perfumed by Erroneous View encounter the right conditions, they “manifest as the present”. Through the Seventh Consciousness (Manas-vijñāna) and the Sixth Consciousness (Manovijñāna), they trigger the creation of the Three Karmas (body, speech, and mind) (“Depending on Other, Paratantra-svabhāva, realm). The presently manifesting affliction then “re-perfumes” the seeds, making their potency even more solid. This is the fundamental reason why sentient beings continuously cycle, unable to extricate themselves, in the vicious cycle of “Seeds generate the present manifestation, and the present manifestation perfumes the seeds”. Therefore, practice is to use Right View (Non-Erroneous View = Wisdom) as the undefiled perfuming agent to reverse this process of affliction perfuming.

2.1.3 Core Types and Harms of Erroneous View

Erroneous View falls under the category of Afflictions Pertaining to View (Darśana-heya). According to the Yogācāra classification, the core types of Erroneous View can be summarized as the Five Views (Pañca-dṛṣṭi):

1. Sakkāya-diṭṭhi (Identity View): This is the foremost of the Five Views. It is the clinging to the conditionally arisen physical and mental aggregates (Five Aggregates) as a real, permanent “Self” or “Mine.” This is the fundamental basis for all afflictions.
2. Antagrāha-dṛṣṭi (Extremist View): Clinging to extreme, mutually opposing views of the “Self”: either clinging to “Permanence” (Sāśvata-vāda) (believing all things are eternally unchanging) or clinging to “Annihilation” (Uccheda-vāda) (believing that death is the end and causality ceases), thus contradicting the law of “Dependent Origination and Emptiness”.
3. Mithyā-dṛṣṭi (Erroneous View in the Narrow Sense): Specifically refers to the denial of the law of karmic retribution, such as denying the existence of wholesome and unwholesome deeds, past and future lives, or the existence of the Noble Ones. This is the fundamental destruction of all wholesome dharmas.
4. Dṛṣṭi-parāmarśa (Clinging to Views): Clinging to incorrect views, considering them to be the most superior. This includes the contradictory clinging in interpersonal relationships or specific concepts, resulting in the mindset of “I can cling to it, but you are not allowed to cling to it,” which is the firm clinging to one’s own fabricated, false views106.
5. Śīla-vrata-parāmarśa (Clinging to Rules and Rites): Clinging to erroneous precepts, believing that purity or liberation can be achieved through irrational ascetic practices or incorrect rituals (such as wearing specific items or performing meaningless acts).[6] [7]

These types of Erroneous View encompass all inverted cognitions. Specifically, Erroneous View in the broad sense causes sentient beings to constantly pursue illusory realms. Driven by “Self-Clinging” (Ātma-grāha), the mind is constantly in doubt and suspicion between “gain” and “loss,” thus generating the fundamental suffering of “illusory gain and illusory loss”.

2.2.1 The Nature of Greed and the “Obstruction and Stagnation” Effect

Greed (rāga) is one of the fundamental afflictions (kleśa) in Buddhism, listed with hatred (dveṣa) and delusion (moha) as the Three Poisons (Triviṣa). The nature of greed is a fundamental lack of faith in the ultimate reality of “Impermanence” and “Non-Self.” It drives sentient beings to falsely confirm and pursue the Erroneous View of “real, permanent, and possessable”. This is a great self-harm to one’s own mind.

This study introduces the “Obstruction and Stagnation”  effect to describe the fundamental harm of greed to practice. Greed is the Covering of Greed (rāgāvaraṇa), one of the Five Hindrances (Pañca nīvaraṇāni), and its function is to obstruct and stagnate. [8]“Obstruction”  refers to the Affliction Obstruction, Karma Obstruction, and Retribution Obstruction (Kleśāvaraṇa, Karmāvaraṇa, Vipākāvaraṇa). “Stagnation” refers to the state where the mind and body are halted, unable to circulate, and passively blocked due to clinging, thereby obstructing the arising of mental and physical tranquility (Praśrabdhi) and concentration/wisdom (Samādhi/Prajñā).

The specific manifestation of “Obstruction and Stagnation” in the Three Karmas is:

• Mental Karma Stagnation: Clinging causes the consciousness to constantly be in a state of pursuit and desire, leading to heavy thoughts, non-fluidity of the mind, and difficulty in generating Right Mindfulness (samyak-smṛti). This manifests as phenomena like sleeplessness and anxiety, severely impairing the power of contemplation.
• Speech Karma Stagnation: For example, the craving for fame or gain causes the function of speech to be constrained by “Self-Clinging” (Ātma-grāha), resulting in difficulty clearly expressing the truth or being unable to speak wholesome words when needed, manifesting as delayed or non-masterful speech.
• Body Karma Stagnation: Clinging leads to difficulty in regulating the body and mind, resulting in non-fluidity of energy channels, causing pain, numbness, and a lack of the tranquility needed for Samādhi (concentration). In practice, the Six Sense Bases are constrained by afflictions, making it difficult to achieve “fixing the mind on a single point,” severely hindering the achievement of the Concentration Learning.

2.2.2 Envy (Jealousy): The Embodiment of Obstruction in a Compound Affliction

Envy (Irṣyā) is classified as a Secondary Affliction (Upakleśa) in Affliction Studies, yet its destructive power is extremely strong.[9] It is not merely hatred or greed but a compound affliction of “Greed plus Hatred”: anxiety arising from the craving for, yet inability to obtain (Greed), the wholesome dharmas, merits, or achievements possessed by others, which then gives rise to dissatisfaction and animosity (Hatred).

Envy possesses extremely strong destructive and obstructive qualities, especially concerning merit and wholesome achievements. It directly prevents the practitioner from generating the Right Conduct of rejoicing in the merits of others (muditā), severing the path to accumulating vast resources of merit.

The retribution induced by Envy is concentrated in a painful state of double loss:

• Failure to Obtain the Desired (Suffering of Not Getting What is Desired, Iṣṭa-viprayoga-duḥkha): Due to the inner rejection of others’ achievements, the things the self craves and desires are constantly unobtainable.
• Loss of What is Obtained (Suffering of Separation from the Beloved, Priyaviprayoga-duḥkha): Achievements, fame, or wealth already acquired will also rapidly decline and suffer loss due to the negative karma generated by the envious mind.

The deeper harm of Envy is that the point the practitioner cherishes and clings to the most can never be perfectly mastered, forming a huge obstruction. Therefore, it must be thoroughly counteracted alongside Greed and Hatred through the discernment of Right Wisdom.

III. The Practice of Wisdom

3.1 The Empirical Mechanism of Wrong Conduct and Erroneous View Habits

This chapter will clarify how the genuine practice of “Non-Erroneous View” fundamentally reverses the affliction perfuming mechanism and establishes Right Knowledge and View, thereby achieving the ultimate mastery of consciousness.

3.1.1 Refined Case Verification

To verify how “inverted cognition” solidifies habits through the “Manifestation — Perfuming of Seeds” mechanism, the example of “Envy” in daily life is provided.

Case Study: Practitioner A sees Colleague B receive an award

When Practitioner A (the perfuming agent, ālambana) sees Colleague B (the object of perception, ālambana) receive a distinction for their hard work, if A’s inner craving (rooted in Identity View, clinging to fame as “Mine”) and hatred (dissatisfaction with B’s achievement) simultaneously manifest as the present, this is the initiator of Wrong Conduct (non-Right Conduct).

• Manifestation: When A’s consciousness gives rise to the intense, inverted Clinging to Views (Dṛṣṭi-parāmarśa) (narrow sense Erroneous View) of “It shouldn’t be B who won the award, this should be mine,” A’s Sixth Consciousness (Mano-vijñāna) and the Secondary Afflictions (Envy, Hatred) arise and cease simultaneously, implanting their potency (the nature of the cause that can generate it) into the Eighth Consciousness.
• Perfuming of Seeds: The present manifestation of Envy is an instance of defiled “re-charging” of the inherent “Envy Karmic Seed” (bīja) in A’s Ālaya-vijñāna.
• Habit Solidification: As this affliction repeatedly manifests and perfumes, the potency of A’s Envy Karmic Seed continually increases. The next time A faces a similar situation, the feeling of envy will manifest more rapidly and violently, becoming an irresistible Erroneous View Habit.

This case directly verifies that: Erroneous View is the present manifestation of Clinging to Views, which solidifies habits through perfuming, and becomes the driving force for Body and Speech Karmas (such as harsh speech and slander). The genuine practice of “Non-Erroneous View” is, at the very moment of manifestation, to use the undefiled perfuming of Right Mindfulness to counteract and replace the defiled Wrong Conduct (non-Right Conduct), thereby reversing the momentum of karmic seed growth.

3.1.2 From Erroneous View Habits to the Mastery of Right View

In conjunction with the aforementioned “Perfuming” mechanism, practice is the process of actively undertaking a structural transformation of consciousness. The core strategy lies in “dismantling the old affliction system” (stopping unwholesome deeds) and “establishing a new wisdom system” (cultivating wholesome deeds), using Appropriate Mental Attention (Yoniśo manasikāra) to replace Inappropriate Mental Attention (Ayoniśo manasikāra), thereby reversing the defiled perfuming in the Ālaya-vijñāna.

1. Dismantling the Old System: Stopping the Defiled “Re-charging” (Stopping Unwholesome Deeds)

Wrong Conduct refers to any action that deviates from the Right Path of causality taught by the Buddha. Every time an Erroneous View manifests, the ensuing “Volition Mental Factor” (Cetana-cetasika) and the actions it generates are instances of defiled “re-charging” the “Ignorance Karmic Seed,” continuously increasing its potency. The goal of stopping unwholesome deeds is to halt this defiled perfuming, block the vicious cycle of “Manifestation— Perfuming of Seeds — Seed Growth,” and prevent the further solidification of Erroneous View habits. Stopping unwholesome deeds in the practice of “Non-Erroneous View” is achieved by initiating wholesome mental factors such as Non-Greed, Non-Hatred, and Non-Delusion, replacing the afflictive mental factors of Greed, Hatred, and Delusion, thereby fundamentally stopping the contamination of consciousness by Inappropriate Mental Attention.

• Establishing the New System: Initiating Undefiled “Perfuming” (Cultivating Wholesome Deeds)

Right Conduct is the process of re-establishing the Right Path by following the Ten Wholesome Deeds, especially the pure mental karma of Non-Erroneous View and Non-Greed149. This process is the active undertaking of undefiled perfuming to cultivate wholesome seeds (kuśala-bīja). It is through “Perfuming by Extensive Hearing” (establishing Right Knowledge and View) and “Appropriate Mental Attention” (Right Mindfulness and Contemplation) that undefiled wholesome seeds are perfumed into the Ālaya-vijñāna. Appropriate Mental Attention, as an all-accompanying mental factor (Sarvatraga-cetasika), is the driving force in the transformation process. It ensures that the Three Wisdoms (Hearing, Contemplation, and Cultivation) can all become the pure “perfuming agent”.

This is not merely an intellectual understanding but a structural transformation at the level of consciousness. Through the practice of the Ten Wholesome Deeds, centered on Right View (Discerning Wisdom), the practitioner can fundamentally overcome Erroneous View (Parikalpita-svabhāva). The ultimate goal of this process is to achieve the “Transformation of Consciousness into Wisdom”: transforming the defiled Sixth Consciousness (Mano-vijñāna)’s Imagined Nature into the Wisdom of Wonderful Contemplation (Pratyavekṣaṇa-jñāna), and transforming the Seventh Consciousness (Manas-vijñāna)’s clinging to the “Self” into the Wisdom of Equality (Samatā-jñāna).[10]

3.1.3 Summary of the Merits of Non-Erroneous View

To be distant from Erroneous View is to achieve ultimate Right View (Wisdom), which is the accomplishment of eradicating the root of all afflictions. The Sūtra on the Ten Wholesome Karmas explicitly states that the abandonment of Erroneous View leads to the accomplishment of the harmonious regulation of the sense faculties. This merit manifests as the Six Sense Faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind) being able to obey the dominance of Right Mindfulness, no longer being constrained by external objects and afflictive habits. This provides the most stable mental and physical resources for cultivating the Concentration Learning (Samādhi), making it easy for the practitioner to fix the mind on a single point.

The Sūtra further states that the abandonment of Erroneous View can lead to the accomplishment of Unimpeded View, attaining the state of unobstructed knowledge and view. Right View enables the practitioner’s merit and wisdom to continuously increase, forever abandon all wrong paths, quickly realize all the Buddha’s teachings, and achieve the mastery of spiritual powers, leading to the ultimate attainment of Buddhahood. Clearly, Non-Erroneous View is not just an ethical requirement but a necessary prerequisite for the achievement of the Wisdom Learning, and the sole right path to fundamentally purify the defiled perfuming in the Ālaya-vijñāna.[11]

3.2 The Five Masteries of Non-Greed

The mastery achieved by the abandonment of greed (Non-Greed) is a superior state where the fruits of merit and karma naturally manifest after the “Obstruction and Stagnation” effect is completely severed. This embodies the mind’s unobstructed control over all states. This is the mind-mastery attained after countering greed.

According to the Sūtra on the Ten Wholesome Karmas, the practitioner can attain Five Superior Merits[12]:

1. Mastery over the Three Karmas: This is the core manifestation of the dissolution of stagnation. The mental karma is pure and luminous, capable of self-directed contemplation, and maintains precepts and cultivation of concentration. Speech karma is clear and without fault. Body karma is tranquil and free from all illnesses.
2. Mastery over Wealth: Wealth can be attained freely. For a person without greed, the mind is without craving, and merit can manifest in the most pure and unobstructed manner.
3. Mastery over Merit: The merit and wholesome achievements cultivated are self-mastered and firm, not to be taken away by external paths, unwholesome karma, or afflictions.
4. Mastery over Dominion and Nobility: In any state, one can occupy a position of dominance and nobility (i.e., the mind transforms the state, not the state transforms the mind), and all beautiful things will automatically be offered.
5. Exceeding Original Desire: What the person without greed obtains exceeds their original desire and is superior by a hundredfold. This merit is the most direct karmic verification of Non-Greed. It powerfully proves that being without craving (Non-Greed) is the fundamental method for attaining superior merit, which is completely in accord with the Buddhist law of causality.

IV. Conclusion and Research Outlook

4.1  Core Summary

Through systematic theoretical and empirical analysis, this research rigorously argues that the Wisdom Learning among the Three Learnings must take the Ten Wholesome Deeds as its most fundamental foundation and specific path of practice. This paper is the first to systematically apply the Yogācāra mechanism of “Perfuming” to the study of the Ten Wholesome Deeds, clarifying that Erroneous View (Ignorance) solidifies into difficult-to-eradicate karmic seeds and habits in the Ālaya-vijñāna through the vicious cycle of “Manifestation $\rightarrow$ Perfuming of Seeds”. This is the fundamental source of the Saṃsāra and defiled unwholesome karma of all sentient beings.

This study innovatively proposes the “Greed-Induced Obstruction and Stagnation” effect to describe the hindrance caused by the mental factor of greed to the practitioner’s Three Karmas (body, speech, and mind). The empirical analysis proves that the genuine practice of “Non-Greed” within the Ten Wholesome Deeds is the key project to resolve this stagnation, restore mental and physical tranquility, and achieve perfect mastery.

The research ultimately confirms that the Ten Wholesome Deeds are the foundation that fully encompasses the Three Learnings (Precepts, Concentration, and Wisdom). Specifically, Non-Erroneous View (Wisdom) and Non-Greed within the mental karma are the sole path for fundamentally transforming the destiny of sentient beings’ suffering and establishing the ultimate Right Path. As recorded in the Mahāvaipulya-Daśacakra-kṣitigarbha Sūtra: if one does not genuinely practice the Ten Wholesome Deeds, even after time equal to the dust motes in the Buddha-fields, they will ultimately be unable to realize Bodhi or Nirvāṇa . This once again establishes the necessity and irreplaceability of the Ten Wholesome Deeds for the achievement of Wisdom.[13]

4.2 Research Implications and Outlook

The academic implication of this research is that it successfully bridged the gap between profound Buddhist theory (Yogācāra) and fundamental ethical practice (The Ten Wholesome Deeds), providing a systematic practical model for establishing ultimate Right View starting from basic conduct. Genuine practice lies in countering fundamental Erroneous View and completely eradicating the afflictions and karmic obstructions it brings. Practitioners should begin with Non-Erroneous View, taking Right Knowledge and View as the starting point for saving all sentient beings.

Future research can further explore how to apply the “Perfuming” theoretical model to modern cognitive-behavioral science to study how Buddhist concepts can effectively change cognitive biases and negative habits in neural circuits193. The concept of “Obstruction and Stagnation” can serve as a research framework in psychosomatic medicine, exploring how greed influences the non-fluid state of energy channels and the body through the neuroendocrine system, thereby offering practical remedies in modern stress and health management.

This thesis hopes to provide new perspectives for both modern practitioners and the academic community, with the ultimate goal of achieving Right View and perfect mastery over the Three Karmas in practice.

References  

Ancient Texts (Ordered chronologically by dynasty)

﹝Later Qin﹞Translated by Buddhayaśas and Zhu Folian: Dīrgha Āgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01.

﹝Northern Liang﹞Translated by Dharmakṣema: Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 12.

﹝Tang﹞Translated by Xuanzang: Mahāyana Mahāsamnipāta Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 13.

﹝Tang﹞Translated by Xuanzang: Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 29.

﹝Tang﹞Translated by Xuanzang: Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 31.

﹝Tang﹞Translated by Xuanzang: Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 31.

﹝Tang﹞Translated by Śikṣānanda: Daśabhūmika Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 15.

﹝Tang﹞Composed by Xuán Jué: Song of Enlightenment by Yongjia, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 48.

﹝Song﹞Annotated by Zong Zhan: Commentary on the Verses on the Door to Contemplating the Dharma Realm, Title of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 45.

[1] Xuanzang, trans.: Mahāyana Mahāsamnipāta Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra, scroll 9: “The Ten Good Deeds is the basis of the Mahāyana, the cause of Bodhi, and the firm ladder to the realization of Nirvāṇa… If one does not practice the Ten Good Deeds, even if, throughout kalpas equal to the dust motes of all ten direction Buddha-fields, one calls oneself Mahāyana, or speaks, or listens, or merely forms an intention, or makes a vow, one will ultimately not be able to realize Bodhi or Nirvāṇa, nor enable others to escape the suffering of saṃsāra.” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 13, p. 768a.

[2] Xuanzang, trans.: Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya, scroll 1: “Wisdom means discrimination of phenomena (dharmas). Purity means uncontaminated (anāsrava). The dependents (parivāra) of pure wisdom are called accompanying factors (anuvartin).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 29, p. 1c.

[3] Śikṣānanda, trans.: Daśabhūmika Sūtra, scroll 1: “What are the Ten? Namely, the ability to forever renounce the taking of life (prāṇātipāta), stealing (adattādāna), unchaste conduct (kāmamithyācāra), false speech (mṛṣāvāda), double-tongue (paiśunya), harsh speech (pāruṣya), frivolous talk (saṃbhinna-pralāpa), covetousness (abhidhyā), malice (vyāpāda), and wrong views (mithyādṛṣṭi).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 15, p. 158a.

[4] Xuánjué, comp.: Song of Enlightenment by Yongjia, scroll 1: “To diminish the Dharma-wealth and destroy the merits is done entirely through the mind (citta), the mental aspect (manas), and consciousness (vijñāna).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 48, p. 396c.

[5] Xuanzang, trans.: Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, scroll 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 31, p. 134c.

[6] Dharmarakṣa, trans.: Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, scroll 25: “Namely, the Five Views (pañca-dṛṣṭi). What are the five? The first is the view of individuality (satkāya-dṛṣṭi); the second is the extreme view (antagrāha-dṛṣṭi); the third is wrong view (mithyā-dṛṣṭi); the fourth is attachment to precepts (śīlavrataparāmarśa); and the fifth is attachment to views (dṛṣṭiparāmarśa). Because of these Five Views, sixty-two views arise, and because of these views, the cycle of birth and death (saṃsāra) is not severed. Therefore, the Bodhisattva guards against them and does not approach them.” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 12, p. 515a.

[7] Xuanzang, trans.: Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi, scroll 6: “The modalities of this View (dṛṣṭi) differ, having five types: First, View of Individuality (satkāya-dṛṣṭi): which takes the five aggregates of grasping (upādāna-skandha) as self (ātman) and belonging to self (ātmīya), serving as the basis for all views and positions… Fifth, Attachment to Precepts and Vows (śīlavrataparāmarśa): which holds precepts and vows consistent with various views, and the aggregates (skandhas) they rely upon, to be supreme and capable of achieving purity, serving as the basis for diligence and suffering without benefit.” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 31, p. 31c–32a.

[8] Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fo-nian, trans.: Dīrgha Āgama, scroll 8: “Namely, the Five Hindrances (pañca nīvaraṇāni): the hindrance of sensual desire (kāmacchanda), the hindrance of ill will (vyāpāda), the hindrance of sloth and torpor (styāna-middha), the hindrance of restlessness and regret (uddhacca-kukkucca), and the hindrance of doubt (vicikitsā).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 51c.

[9] Xuanzang, trans.: Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi, scroll 6: “The Secondary Afflictions (upakleśa) are: Wrath (krodha), Resentment (upanāha), Concealment (mrakṣa), Vexation (pradāsa), Envy (īrṣyā), and Avarice (mātsarya).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 31, p. 33c.

[10] Cóngzhàn, comm.: Commentary on the Verses on the Door to Contemplating the Dharma Realm, Title of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, scroll 1: “After traversing the Three Asaṃkhyeya Kalpas (tri-asaṃkhyeya-kalpa), consciousness (vijñāna) is transformed into Wisdom (jñāna).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 45, p. 699c.

[11] Śikṣānanda, trans.: Daśabhūmika Sūtra, scroll 1: “By departing from wrong views (mithyādṛṣṭi), one thereby attains ten merits and virtues… If one can dedicate this toward Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi, when one attains Buddhahood later, one will swiftly realize all the Buddha-Dharmas and achieve mastery over spiritual powers (abhijñā).” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 15, p. 158b.

[12] Śikṣānanda, trans.: Daśabhūmika Sūtra, scroll 1: “By departing from covetousness (abhidhyā), one thereby attains five types of mastery (vaśitā)… If one can dedicate this toward Anuttara Samyak Sambodhi, when one attains Buddhahood later, one will be uniquely honored throughout the three realms and universally revered and nourished.” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 15, p. 158c.

[13] Same as footnote 1.

Buddhas’ Practice Incorporated Thesis Writing

(Issue 23)

On Prajna (Wisdom)

——The Wisdom of Liberation in the Buddhist Threefold Training System of Precepts, Samadhi, and Prajna

Instructor: Bennie Spirit

Author: Hugo Wang

September 19, 2025

Abstract

Prajna (wisdom) is the core culmination of the Buddhist threefold training system of precepts, samadhi, and prajna. It is also the fundamental reliance for sentient beings to break free from vexations and attain nirvana and supreme buddhahood. The “prajna” mentioned in Buddhism is not the secular cleverness of knowledge. Instead, it is the direct realization and enlightenment of the true nature of all phenomena (such as dependent origination and emptiness, consciousness-only, seeing one’s true nature, and the function arising from the essence). Its meaning has been enriched with the development of various Buddhist schools, but it has always revolved around the core goal of “breaking through delusion to achieve enlightenment and leaving suffering to attain happiness”. This paper systematically examines the definition of “prajna” in Buddhist scriptures, its dialectical relationship with “precepts” and “samadhi,” the different interpretations of “prajna” across various schools, and the practical paths to achieving “prajna”. Ultimately, it explores the insights of Buddhist “prajna” theory for modern spiritual growth, revealing its timeless spiritual value.

Keywords: Prajna (Wisdom), Breaking Through Delusion to Achieve Enlightenment, Practical Path, Spiritual Growth, Spiritual Value

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Defining the Concept of Buddhist “Prajna”

Chapter 3: The Position of “Prajna” in the Threefold Training of Precepts, Samadhi, and Prajna: From “Foundation” to “Culmination”

Chapter 4: The Practical Path of “Prajna”: From “Hearing, Contemplating, and Cultivating” to “Realization”

Chapter 5: The Modern Value of Buddhist “Prajna” Theory: Wisdom for Addressing Spiritual Distress

Chapter 6: Conclusion

Chapter 1: Introduction

Buddhism’s fundamental purpose is to “cut off delusion and realize the truth,” and the elimination of “delusion” relies on the arising of “prajna”. The

Diamond Sutra says, “If a person says that the Tathagata has spoken the Dharma, he slanders the Buddha, for he does not understand what I have said. Subhuti, he who speaks the Dharma has nothing to say; this is called speaking the Dharma”. The phrase “nothing to say” here does not negate the value of speech. Instead, it points to the “prajna” that transcends the nature of language —only through “prajna” can one transcend the secular dualistic opposition and realize the true nature of all phenomena. “Prajna” is a core concept of Mahayana Buddhism and includes the ultimate enlightenment of “emptiness” and “the true nature of reality”.

From the perspective of Buddhist development, the meaning of “prajna” has consistently permeated various schools, including Mahayana Buddhism and Zen, and its core has never changed. This core is to break the attachment to the self (“self-clinging”) and the attachment to phenomena (“dharma-clinging”) through the realization of the true nature of all phenomena, ultimately achieving liberation. This paper aims to systematically explain the meaning and value of Buddhist “prajna” from four dimensions—concept, system, schools, and practice—in the hope of providing insights for the spiritual distress of modern society.

Chapter 2: Defining the Concept of Buddhist “Prajna”

The Buddhist definition of “prajna” is first based on the dichotomy of “mundane” and “supramundane”. The former is “leaky prajna” that serves the cycle of birth and death, while the latter is “non-leaky prajna” that leads to the liberation of nirvana. This distinction does not negate the value of mundane prajna but clarifies the ultimate goal of “prajna”—to break free from vexations and achieve buddhahood, not to satisfy mundane utilitarian needs.

(1) The Original Sanskrit Meaning and Basic Connotation of “Prajna”

“Prajna” literally means “transcendental knowledge,” which is the direct knowledge of the true nature of all phenomena, transcending secular discrimination and attachment. In the Pali scripture

Dhammapada, “prajna” is defined as “contemplating the true nature of all phenomena as it is”. For example, the

Dhammapada: The Chapter on Wisdom says, “If one sees the law of dependent origination, one sees the impermanence of all phenomena; if one sees the impermanence of all phenomena, one sees the non-self of all phenomena; if one sees the non-self of all phenomena, one obtains the joy of liberation”. Here, “prajna” is the wisdom that, by contemplating the true nature of “impermanence” and “non-self,” breaks attachment to the “self” and “external objects,” thereby achieving liberation.

Buddhism divides “prajna” into three levels, namely “prajna of hearing,” “prajna of contemplation,” and “prajna of cultivation”. This is a progressive process of “prajna” from theoretical understanding to practical realization.

Prajna of Hearing (Śruta-mayā-prajñā): This is the initial understanding of Buddhist principles (such as the Four Noble Truths, the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, and dependent origination and emptiness) obtained by hearing the Dharma and reading scriptures. The

Śūraṅgama Sūtra says, “Understanding is gained through hearing, and cultivation begins after enlightenment”. “Prajna of hearing” is the foundation of “prajna,” just like a farmer “knowing the seeds” before planting them. Without a basic understanding of the Dharma, subsequent wisdom cannot arise.

Prajna of Contemplation (Cintā-mayā-prajñā): This involves contemplating the principles obtained from “prajna of hearing” to break through doubts and establish right views. The

Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom (Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra), Volume 81, says, “The prajna of hearing is like reading a prescription, the prajna of contemplation is like understanding a prescription, and the prajna of cultivation is like taking the medicine to cure a disease”. If one only hears without contemplating, the Dharma becomes “mere talk on paper” and cannot be transformed into inner right views. Only through contemplation can one understand “why all phenomena are impermanent” and “why the self is an illusion,” thereby breaking “wrong views” (such as eternalism and nihilism).

Prajna of Cultivation (Bhāvanā-mayā-prajñā): This is the ultimate form of “prajna,” in which one directly realizes the true nature that was understood through “prajna of hearing” and “prajna of contemplation” through meditative practice (such as contemplating the breath, the impurity of the body, and the non-self of phenomena). In the

Madhyama Āgama, the Buddha taught his disciples to “contemplate the body as the body, contemplate feelings as feelings” , which is to give rise to “prajna of cultivation” through meditation and ultimately attain the “first fruition” and even the “arhat fruition”.

(2) The Distinction Between “Mundane Prajna” and “Supramundane Prajna”

Buddhism divides “prajna” into “mundane prajna” (leaky prajna) and “supramundane prajna” (non-leaky prajna). The core difference between the two lies in “whether the goal is liberation”.

Mundane Prajna: This refers to the wisdom that serves secular life, such as scientific knowledge, technical skills, and interpersonal communication skills. Its essence is “leaky” (containing vexations and creating karma) because it is guided by “satisfying greed, anger, and ignorance” (e.g., learning business wisdom to pursue wealth or learning strategy to retaliate against others). The

Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Volume 5, says, “Mundane prajna, whether heard, seen, or known, follows the cycle of birth and death; supramundane prajna, whether heard, seen, or known, follows nirvana”.

Supramundane Prajna: This is the wisdom that leads to liberation, which is the realization of the “Four Noble Truths,” the “Twelve Links of Dependent Origination,” and “dependent origination and emptiness”. Its essence is “non-leaky” (without vexations) because its goal is to “break the attachment to the self”. As the Diamond Sutra says, “one should produce a mind that does not dwell on anything” —this is the core of “supramundane prajna” —not clinging to any form of external objects or internal thoughts, thereby giving rise to a pure mind.

It is important to note that Buddhism does not deny “mundane prajna” but emphasizes that “mundane prajna” can be a supportive condition for “supramundane prajna”. For example, Vimalakīrti, the lay practitioner in the

Vimalakirti Sutra, though living in the secular world (with a family and immense wealth), used “mundane prajna” as a skillful means to liberate sentient beings. His essence was still the manifestation of “supramundane prajna”—”though in the world, not stained by the world”.

Chapter 3: The Position of “Prajna” in the Threefold Training of Precepts, Samadhi, and Prajna: From “Foundation” to “Culmination”

The Buddhist threefold training of “precepts, samadhi, and prajna” is a complete system of cultivation. The three are interdependent and indispensable. Among them, “precepts” are the foundation, “samadhi” is the supportive condition, and “prajna” is the culmination. Without the restraint of “precepts,” the mind is scattered; without the concentration of “samadhi,” “prajna” cannot arise. Without the enlightenment of “prajna,” “precepts” and “samadhi” become “blind cultivation,” unable to lead to liberation.

(1) “Precepts as the Foundation”: The Arising of “Prajna” Requires the Assurance of “Precepts”

“Precepts” are the guidelines established by Buddhism to regulate the behavior of sentient beings and purify the mind. Their core is to “stop evil and do good”. The

Sūtra of the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching says, “Precepts are the fundamental source for rightly following liberation, thus they are called Prātimokṣa (the transliteration of precepts). By relying on these precepts, one can give rise to various forms of meditation and wisdom”. Why are “precepts” the foundation of “prajna”? Because if the “mind” of sentient beings is polluted by “greed, anger, and ignorance” (such as evil deeds like killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct), it will be in a state of chaos and agitation. One will be unable to focus on “contemplating the true nature of reality” and naturally cannot give rise to “prajna”.

For example, if a practitioner violates the precept of “not killing” or “not committing sexual misconduct,” their mind will be filled with scattered thoughts, such as worrying about karmic retribution and the disharmony of the six senses, and they will be unable to enter “samadhi”. If one observes the “precepts,” the mind will be pure and stable, like “clear water when it is still”. This creates the conditions for the arising of “samadhi” and “prajna”. The Śūraṅgama Sūtra says, “Restraining the mind is called precepts; because of precepts, samadhi arises; because of samadhi, prajna is developed. These are called the Three Non-Leaky Trainings”. Here, “restraining the mind is precepts” emphasizes that the essence of “precepts” is to “gather the scattered mind”. Only when the mind is not scattered can “samadhi” arise, and then “prajna” is developed.

(2) “Samadhi as the Supportive Condition”: The Arising of “Prajna” Requires the Aid of “Samadhi”

“Samadhi” is “the concentration of the mind,” which is the state of “the mind being free from false thoughts” achieved by concentrating scattered attention on one point (such as the breath, a Buddha statue, or the meaning of the Dharma) through meditation. The

Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Volume 27, says, “Samadhi can gather the mind, and prajna can cut off vexations; samadhi is like catching a thief, and prajna is like killing a thief”. If “vexations” are compared to “thieves,” “samadhi” is “the hand that catches the thieves” (restraining vexations), and “prajna” is “the knife that kills the thieves” (completely eliminating vexations). Without the focus of “samadhi,” “prajna” cannot accurately “contemplate the true nature of reality,” just as one cannot hit a target from a shaking boat.

(3) “Prajna as the Culmination”: The Ultimate Goal of “Precepts” and “Samadhi” is “Prajna”

The cultivation of “precepts” and “samadhi” is ultimately for the purpose of giving rise to “prajna”. If one only observes precepts without prajna, they will fall into “attachment to precepts and rituals”. If one only cultivates samadhi without prajna, they will fall into the happiness of “form realm” and “formless realm” meditations and will be unable to escape the cycle of rebirth. (For example, in the

Āgama Sutras, some practitioners attain the “state of neither perception nor non-perception” and mistakenly believe it to be “nirvana,” but it is still a state of rebirth) .

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Volume 38, says, “Precepts are like a wall, samadhi is like a city, and prajna is like a king”. “Precepts” are like the “wall” that protects the city, “samadhi” is like the city itself, and “prajna” is the “king” within the city. Only with the presence of the “king” (prajna) do the “wall” (precepts) and the “city” (samadhi) have meaning, enabling one to truly “govern” vexations and achieve liberation. For example, the “arhat fruition” in Hinayana Buddhism is attained by “holding precepts” (the Five Precepts, Eight Precepts, and full precepts), “cultivating samadhi” (the Four Dhyānas and Eight Samādhis), and “giving rise to prajna” (contemplating the Four Noble Truths). This ultimately breaks the “delusions of views” and “delusions of thoughts” and attains nirvana. The “bodhisattva fruition” in Mahayana Buddhism is attained by relying on “prajna-pāramitā,” and on the foundation of “precepts” and “samadhi,” a bodhisattva widely liberates sentient beings, ultimately attaining “buddhahood”.

(3) Zen Buddhism: “Sudden Enlightenment Prajna”—The Prajna of the Fundamental Mind with “Seeing the Nature and Realizing the Mind” as Its Core

Zen Buddhism’s core scripture is the

Platform Sutra. The core of its “prajna” is to “see the nature and realize the mind,” which is to directly realize the “fundamental mind” (buddha-nature) through “sudden enlightenment”. Sentient beings inherently possess “buddha-nature,” but it is obscured by “ignorance” (vexations), preventing them from becoming enlightened. Once “ignorance” is broken, one “sees the nature and becomes a Buddha”.

Zen Buddhism’s “prajna” is different from the “gradual cultivation prajna” of other schools, as it emphasizes “sudden enlightenment”.

The Sixth Patriarch Huineng says in the Platform Sutra, “The previous thought of delusion is a common person, the next thought of enlightenment is a Buddha; the previous thought of clinging to a state is vexation, the next thought of being free from clinging to a state is bodhi (enlightenment)”. The “enlightenment” here is “sudden enlightenment prajna” —one can realize the “fundamental mind” in just a single moment by breaking through “ignorance”.

Zen “koans” (such as “Zhaozhou’s ‘go have tea'” and “a dog has no buddha-nature”) are skillful means to guide practitioners to transcend linguistic thought and directly achieve “sudden enlightenment”. By “contemplating koans,” one breaks “discriminative thinking,” thus “seeing the nature and realizing the mind”.

Zen Buddhism’s “prajna” does not negate the threefold training of “precepts, samadhi, and prajna”. Instead, it emphasizes that the essence of “prajna” is the “manifestation of the fundamental mind”. “Precepts” are the “natural expression of the fundamental mind” (e.g., “do no evil, do all good” is the compassion of the fundamental mind), “samadhi” is the “concentration of the fundamental mind” (e.g., “the ordinary mind is the Way,” and there is no need to deliberately sit in meditation), and “prajna” is the “enlightenment of the fundamental mind”. As the

Platform Sutra says, “The Buddha’s Dharma is in the world, and enlightenment is not separate from the world; seeking bodhi apart from the world is like seeking a rabbit with horns”. The “prajna” of Zen is to enlighten the fundamental mind and manifest its wonderful function in secular life without having to detach from reality.

Chapter 4: The Practical Path of “Prajna”: From “Hearing, Contemplating, and Cultivating” to “Realization”

The essence of Buddhist “prajna” is “practical wisdom,” not purely theoretical knowledge. The arising of “prajna” requires passing through the three stages of “hearing, contemplating, and cultivating” to ultimately achieve “realization”.

(1) Prajna of Hearing: Drawing Close to Good Teachers and Learning from Scriptures

Prajna of hearing is the foundation of “prajna”. It is the initial understanding of the Dharma’s principles obtained by drawing close to “good teachers” (practitioners with right views and virtue) and reading Buddhist scriptures. The Lotus Sutra, Volume 7, says, “Good teachers are a great cause and condition, meaning that they guide and enable one to see the Buddha and give rise to the mind of anuttara-samyak-sambodhi” (supreme perfect enlightenment). Why are good teachers important? Because due to the ignorance of sentient beings, if they do not “hear the Dharma” from good teachers, they cannot know the “root of vexations” and the “method of liberation,” just as a blind person cannot see the road.

Key points for the practice of “prajna of hearing”:

Choose orthodox scriptures: One should choose the core Buddhist scriptures (such as the Āgama Sutras, Diamond Sutra, Heart Sutra, Platform Sutra) and avoid being misled by “wrong views” (such as false Dharma that promotes “killing without fault” or “clinging to fame and fortune”).

Draw close to good teachers: A good teacher can “answer questions and resolve doubts” and help practitioners understand the profound principles in the scriptures (such as “dependent origination and emptiness” and “all phenomena are only consciousness”) to avoid “misinterpreting the text”.

Maintain a mind of reverence: Maintaining reverence for the Dharma, scriptures, and good teachers is necessary to “humbly receive instruction” and give rise to true “prajna of hearing”. If one is arrogant, even if they hear the Dharma, they cannot understand its meaning.

(2) Prajna of Contemplation: Contemplating Principles and Breaking Through Doubts

Prajna of contemplation is the advanced stage of “prajna”. It is the process of contemplating the principles obtained from “prajna of hearing” to break through doubts and establish right views. The

Śūraṅgama Sūtra says, “In principle, one can achieve sudden enlightenment, and with that enlightenment, all principles are eliminated; in practice, it is not eliminated suddenly, but gradually over time”. The “sudden enlightenment in principle” here is to suddenly understand the “principle” of the Dharma (such as the “empty nature of all phenomena” and the “sublime and bright true mind”) through “prajna of contemplation,” but the “practice” (the breaking of vexations) still requires gradual cultivation.

Key points for the practice of “prajna of contemplation”:

Connect with daily life: One should integrate the Dharma principles with daily life. For example, contemplate the “impermanence” of the “five aggregates” (form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness). When the body is sick, contemplate the “impermanence of the physical body”. When one feels emotional pain, contemplate “feeling is suffering”. This breaks attachment to the “physical body” and “emotions”.

Break “wrong views”: Through contemplation, one breaks wrong views such as “eternalism” (believing the “self” is eternal and unchanging) and “nihilism” (believing that “everything ceases after death”) and establishes right views of “dependent origination and emptiness” and “karma”.

Do not cling to “literal meaning”: When contemplating principles, one should transcend the constraints of language and concepts. As the

Diamond Sutra says, “If the Tathagata says that there is a Dharma to liberate sentient beings, that is to say there is no such Dharma, and that is called ‘a Dharma to liberate sentient beings'”. If one clings to the “literal meaning,” they will deviate from the “true nature of reality”.

(3) Prajna of Cultivation: Meditative Practice and Direct Realization of Reality

Prajna of cultivation is the ultimate stage of “prajna”. It is the direct realization of the true nature that was understood through “prajna of hearing” and “prajna of contemplation” through meditative practice. It is the perfect form of “prajna”. In the

Āgama Sutras, the Buddha taught his disciples the “Four Foundations of Mindfulness” (contemplating the impurity of the body, contemplating that feelings are suffering, contemplating the impermanence of the mind, and contemplating the non-self of phenomena). This is the core method of “prajna of cultivation” —by focusing on and contemplating the “body, feelings, mind, and phenomena,” one gives rise to “prajna of cultivation” and ultimately attains nirvana.

Key points for the practice of “prajna of cultivation”:

Choose a suitable meditation method: Based on one’s own capacity, one should choose a suitable meditation method (such as “contemplating emptiness” in the Mahayana emptiness school or “contemplating koans” in the Zen school) and should not blindly imitate others.

Proceed gradually: Meditation requires starting from the “foundation,” such as first practicing the “counting the breath method” to cultivate the ability of “samadhi,” and then proceeding to “contemplation” (such as contemplating the “impermanence of the five aggregates”) to give rise to “prajna of cultivation”. If one rushes to “contemplate” without first gaining “samadhi,” the mind will only be filled with scattered thoughts.

Persist for the long term: The arising of “prajna of cultivation” is not achieved in a single stroke. It requires long-term persistence in meditation. As the

Śūraṅgama Sūtra says, “All sentient beings, since beginningless time, have mistaken the self for objects and have lost their fundamental mind, being turned by objects, and thus in this, they see greatness and smallness. If one can turn the objects, one is the same as the Tathagata”. Only with long-term meditation can one “turn the objects” (not be deluded by external objects) and give rise to “prajna of cultivation”.

Chapter 5: The Modern Value of Buddhist “Prajna” Theory: Wisdom for Addressing Spiritual Distress

In modern society, technological development has brought material abundance, but it has also exacerbated spiritual distress—vexations such as anxiety, depression, loneliness, and attachment are increasingly common. The wisdom of “breaking attachment, contemplating, and becoming enlightened” contained in Buddhist “prajna” theory provides important insights for addressing these difficulties.

(1) Breaking the “Suffering of Attachment” with “Dependent Origination and Emptiness”

Much of the vexation in modern society originates from attachment to “external objects” (such as wealth, power, fame, and love). People believe that these “external objects” are “real” and “eternal” and fall into suffering once they are lost. Buddhist “prajna” theory’s “dependent origination and emptiness” tells us that all “external objects” arise from the combination of causes and conditions and have no fixed, unchanging “self-nature,” and are therefore “impermanent” and “non-self”.

For example, if a person is attached to “wealth” and believes that “wealth can bring eternal happiness,” they will suffer when wealth is lost. However, if they contemplate with the wisdom of “dependent origination and emptiness,” they will know that “wealth is the product of causes and conditions (such as effort, opportunity, and good fortune) and will eventually be lost”. This leads to not being attached to “wealth” and gaining inner peace. As the Diamond Sutra says, “one should produce a mind that does not dwell on anything”. Without attachment to external objects, the mind becomes pure and free.

(2) Breaking the “Suffering of Anxiety” with “Contemplating the Impermanence of the Mind”

The “anxiety” in modern society mostly stems from worry about the “future” (such as worrying about losing a job, getting sick, or retirement) or regret about the “past” (such as regretting mistakes or missed opportunities). Buddhist “prajna” theory’s “contemplating the impermanence of the mind” tells us that the “mind” arises and ceases moment by moment. As the Diamond Sutra says, “the past mind is unobtainable, the present mind is unobtainable, the future mind is unobtainable”. Therefore, there is no need to cling to the “past” and “future”.

Through the practice of “contemplating the impermanence of the mind” (such as observing one’s thoughts during meditation), we will find that “anxiety” is merely a thought of the “mind,” which vanishes in an instant like a flowing stream. It is not a “real” “self” that is anxious. When we no longer cling to the thought of “anxiety,” “anxiety” will naturally disappear. This wisdom of “contemplating the mind” can help us live in the “present moment” and reduce attachment to the “past” and “future”.

(3) Breaking the “Suffering of Loneliness” with “Emphasizing Both Compassion and Prajna”

The “loneliness” in modern society mostly stems from a “self-centered” mindset. One only focuses on their own needs and ignores the suffering of others, leading to a sense of alienation from others. Buddhist “prajna” theory, which emphasizes both “compassion” (caring for others) and “prajna” (contemplating the true nature of reality), tells us that the “self” and “others” are “dependently arising”. Helping others is helping oneself, and caring for others can eliminate loneliness.

The “bodhisattva path” of Mahayana Buddhism is a manifestation of “emphasizing both compassion and prajna”. A bodhisattva uses “prajna-pāramitā” to contemplate “emptiness” and does not cling to the distinction between “self” and “others”. With a “compassionate mind,” a bodhisattva widely liberates sentient beings, who are like illusions, and helps others break free from vexations. In modern society, we can practice “compassion” by “serving others” (such as through volunteer activities or helping family, friends, and strangers). At the same time, we can use “prajna” to contemplate the essence of “serving others” and not cling to the illusion of “I am serving others,” which includes the mind and body. This eliminates loneliness and brings inner fulfillment.

Chapter 6: Conclusion

“Prajna” is the core of the Buddhist threefold training of “precepts, samadhi, and prajna”. It is the fundamental reliance for sentient beings to break free from vexations, attain nirvana, walk the bodhisattva path, and achieve supreme buddhahood. From the “prajna-pāramitā” of the Mahayana emptiness school and the “consciousness-only prajna” of the Yogācāra school to the “sudden enlightenment prajna” of the Zen school, Buddhist “prajna” theory has always revolved around the core goal of “breaking through delusion to achieve enlightenment and leaving suffering to attain happiness”. Its meaning has been enriched with the development of various schools, but it has never deviated from the essence of “directly realizing the true nature of all phenomena”.

The practical path of Buddhist “prajna”—”hearing, contemplating, and cultivating”—provides a clear direction for practitioners. It is through “prajna of hearing” that one gains right views, through “prajna of contemplation” that one breaks through doubts, and through “prajna of cultivation” that one directly realizes the true nature of reality, ultimately achieving liberation. In modern society, the wisdom of “breaking attachment, contemplating, and compassion” contained in Buddhist “prajna” theory provides important insights for addressing spiritual distress such as anxiety, attachment, and loneliness, becoming a common spiritual treasure for humanity.

As the Heart Sutra says, “All Buddhas of the three times, relying on prajna-pāramitā, have attained anuttara-samyak-sambodhi” (supreme perfect enlightenment). “Prajna” is not only the core of Buddhism but also the eternal guide for sentient beings to break free from vexations and gain ultimate peace and happiness.

References

Ancient Texts (sorted by dynasty/time period):

1[Later Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva:

The Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Volume 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 08.

2[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva:

Sūtra of the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching, Volume 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 12.

3[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva:

The Lotus Sūtra, Volume 7, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 09.

4[Eastern Jin] Translated by Gautama Saṅghadeva:

Madhyama Āgama, Volume 21, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 01.

5[Tang] Translated by Paramiti:

The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Volume 6, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 48.

6[Tang] Translated by Paramiti:

The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Volume 10, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 48.

7[Tang] Translated by Xuanzang:

The Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya Sūtra, Volume 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 08.

8[Yuan] Compiled by Zongbao:

The Platform Sūtra of the Sixth Patriarch, Volume 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Volume 48.

—–š›&š›—–

(Issue 22)

Buddhism Meditation Training: Stages, Challenges, and Accomplishments

Instructor: Shi Ziju

Author: Shi Fafu

August 15, 2025
Abstract

This thesis explores the disciplined stages and potential challenges of Buddhist meditation practice. It specifically focuses on the root causes that prevent beginners from entering meditative states, the demonic phenomena or illusory realms that may arise during practice, and how to ensure meditation progresses positively and ultimately leads to accomplishment through the cultivation of right understanding and adherence to precepts.

The paper integrates the doctrines of both Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures with an empirical analysis. It not only clarifies that meditation is a rigorous, progressive process with potential difficulties but also offers concrete solutions to help practitioners identify and avoid the risks of deviating from the right path. A particular emphasis is placed on how to prevent improper practice from leading to the development of a “malevolent fanatic with psychic powers,” providing clear guidance and a warning for contemporary meditation practitioners.

Keywords:  Samadhi, Stages, Demonic Realms, Precepts, Right Understanding

Table of contents

I. Introduction. 1

(I) Contemporary Meditation Phenomena. 1

(II) Core Challenges Faced by Practitioners 1

(III) Thesis Objectives. 2

(IV) Definition of Buddhist Samadhi 4

II. Entering Samadhi and Laying the Foundation. 7

(I) The Jungle of Afflictions. 7

1.The Interference of Distractive Thoughts. 7

2.The Manifestation of Drowsiness. 10

(II) Paving the Path Through the Jungle of Afflictions. 11

(III) The Foundations of Samadhi in Buddhist Scriptures. 14

1. The Foundations of Samadhi in Hinayana Scriptures. 15

2. The Depth of Samadhi in Mahayana Scriptures. 17

3. The Relationship Between Samadhi and Wisdom.. 19

III. States and Problems During Samadhi 20

(I) Empirical Analysis of Samadhi Levels and Progress. 20

1. The First Dhyāna. 20

2. The Second Dhyāna Stage. 22

(II) Demonic Realms in Meditation and the Protection of Precepts. 25

1. The Manifestation of Demonic Realms and the Risk of Becoming a Demon. 25

2. Upholding Precepts as the Fundamental Protection. 27

IV. Accomplishment in Samadhi 30

(I) The Manifestation of Wisdom and Psychic Powers. 30

(II) The Ultimate Goal 33

V. Conclusion. 36

References. 39

I. Introduction

(I) Contemporary Meditation Phenomena

In today’s fast-paced, high-stress world, the need for inner peace is growing, making meditation an unprecedentedly widespread and significant lifestyle choice. From meditation classes at yoga studios to various meditation centers and a wide array of apps and related products, meditation has become a prominent cultural trend. Many people are drawn to it, hoping to relieve stress, improve focus, or even explore deeper meanings of life. However, beneath this trend, a crucial and often overlooked issue has emerged: many practitioners embark on this path without sufficient preparation or correct understanding. They might start with mere enthusiasm or a desire for the perceived benefits of meditation, knowing little about its underlying theoretical foundations, rigorous stages, or potential challenges. This lack of preparation creates numerous unforeseen risks for their future practice.

(II) Core Challenges Faced by Practitioners

Given the context above, contemporary meditation practitioners face several core challenges. These not only hinder their progress but also carry the risk of leading them astray from the right path:

1. Difficulty Entering Meditation: For beginners, the two most common obstacles are distractive thoughts and drowsiness. The mind races like a wild horse, filled with countless, or the body and mind become tired and sleepy, making it impossible to stay alert. These afflictions are like an intricate jungle, severely blocking the mind’s focus and preventing practitioners from genuinely entering a state of samadhi. Investigating the causes of these common yet persistent obstacles and the methods to overcome them is the primary focus of this thesis.
2. Potential Risks After Entering Samadhi: In society, there are not a few practitioners who, after some time of practice, do not become more compassionate and wise. Instead, they exhibit arrogance, fanaticism, or even use the “abilities” gained from meditation to indulge their afflictions. This phenomenon can be attributed to improper practice, which may lead to the “malevolent fanatic with psychic powers” effect. Furthermore, Buddhist scriptures clearly record various demonic phenomena that can arise during meditation. These disturbances can lead practitioners astray and even cause severe psychological distress. Therefore, a crucial task for all practitioners is to recognize and respond to the pitfalls of meditation to ensure their practice develops in a positive direction.

(III) Thesis Objectives

In response to the core challenges faced by meditators, this thesis aims to analyze the rigorous stages, potential challenges, and concrete solutions within Buddhist meditation practice. Specifically, the paper will focus on the following objectives:

1. To Explore the Fundamental Obstacles to Entering Samadhi: We will deeply analyze the primary reasons why beginners struggle to enter meditation, particularly the obstructive role of afflictions (distractive thoughts and drowsiness). We will also clarify the central role of awareness in overcoming these obstacles, establishing it as the cornerstone for beginning meditation.
2. To Analyze and Warn Against Demonic Phenomena in Meditation: We will elaborate on the demonic phenomena that may arise during meditation and their negative consequences. Drawing from both Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures—especially the detailed explanation of the “Fifty Skandha Demons” in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra—we will provide clear warnings for practitioners.
3. To Establish the Path of Positive Development in Meditation: We will emphasize how maintaining right understanding and upholding precepts can ensure the positive development and ultimate accomplishment of one’s practice. This aims to help practitioners effectively avoid the risk of becoming a “malevolent fanatic with psychic powers.”

By integrating the doctrines of both Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures with an empirical analysis, this thesis will systematically explain that meditation is a rigorous, progressive process. It will offer specific countermeasures for potential problems in practice. The core argument of this paper is that without a solid foundation, practitioners not only find it difficult to genuinely enter samadhi but may also lead to the dangerous situation of becoming a “malevolent fanatic with psychic powers.” A key goal of this study is to show how to avoid these problems.

(IV) Definition of Buddhist Samadhi

Before exploring the stages, challenges, and accomplishments of Buddhist meditation, it is necessary to first clearly define the core concept of samadhi. Although “meditation” has become increasingly popular in contemporary society, its meaning is often simplified or misunderstood as a mere relaxation technique or psychological adjustment exercise. However, from a Buddhist perspective, samadhi is not just a state of physical and mental tranquility; it is a method of practice for awakening wisdom and moving toward liberation.

Buddhist samadhi is not the ordinary concentration found in the mundane world. It includes two indispensable aspects: calming and insight. Calming refers to focusing the mind on a single object to achieve a state of “one-pointedness of mind”. In this state, the mind is highly concentrated, not scattered or grasping. As stated in the Abhidharma-prakaraṇa-pāda-śāstra: “What is concentration? It is when the mind abides, abides equally, settles, settles near, and abides firmly, without confusion or dispersion, collected and held, with one-pointedness of mind; this is called concentration.”[1]This state of mental stability and one-pointedness allows the mind to shift from a scattered state to a collected one, and from gross afflictions to tranquility, laying the foundation for further inner observation. Furthermore, the Vajrasamādhi-sūtra-śāstra adds: “If one abides in a single state, without sinking or floating, and observes with correct, careful thought, this is called concentration.”[2]This emphasizes the unbiased, correct observation in the state of concentration, which is integrated with insight. Insight refers to using wisdom to see through all phenomena—such as impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self—on the basis of one-pointedness of mind. Through insight, practitioners can break through delusion and attachment to worldly things, fundamentally uprooting the source of afflictions. Therefore, Buddhist samadhi is a process of integrating both calming and insight, with the ultimate goal being not to seek psychic powers or sensory pleasure but to give rise to wisdom, move away from suffering and attain bliss, and ultimately achieve final liberation.

Moreover, Buddhist samadhi is inseparable from the Threefold Training of precepts, samadhi, and wisdom, which together form a complete system of Buddhist practice. Precepts are the cornerstone of samadhi, helping to purify the body and mind and prevent the creation of negative karma, thereby providing a favorable internal and external environment for meditation. Samadhi, in turn, creates the conditions for the arising of wisdom, enabling the mind to attain a state in which it can clearly perceive reality. The three are interdependent and mutually reinforcing.[3]Similarly, the Buddha’s teaching to the venerable Ānanda in the Śūraṅgama Sūtra states: “You have often heard me, in the Vinaya, speak of the three ultimate meanings of practice: taking control of the mind as precepts, from precepts producing samadhi, and from samadhi giving rise to wisdom. These are called the Threefold Training beyond the mundane.”[4]This passage clearly explains the stages and essence of the Threefold Training. “Taking control of the mind as precepts” means abandoning all distraction and abiding in the naturally pure mind, which in turn leads to the power of concentration. “From precepts producing samadhi” emphasizes that precepts are a necessary prerequisite for the accomplishment of samadhi. “From samadhi giving rise to wisdom” indicates that within the state of samadhi, a practitioner can give rise to special wisdom, including the wisdom of reality, dhāraṇī, a retentive memory, principles, and psychic transformations, ultimately leading to ultimate liberation. Therefore, the samadhi discussed in this thesis is a system of practice within this framework of Buddhist doctrine.

II. Entering Samadhi and Laying the Foundation

(I) The Jungle of Afflictions

The most fundamental reason meditators struggle at the beginning stage of samadhi is their entanglement with afflictions. These afflictions are like an intricate web that tightly ensnares the practitioner, making it difficult to enter a meditative state. During meditation, they manifest directly as various mental states and moods that severely hinder the mind’s focus. Worse still, these afflictions can drive practitioners to commit negative karma, leading to endless bondage and suffering and creating a vicious cycle. At the introductory stage of meditation, two types of afflictions are particularly prominent:

1．The Interference of Distractive Thoughts

When a meditator attempts to sit quietly, their thoughts often race around like an untamed horse—this is the work of distractive thoughts. These miscellaneous thoughts are typically rooted in the mind’s greed and attachment to the five worldly desires: delicious food, beautiful forms, fame, power, etc. They may appear as past memories, current worries, or future fantasies, constantly swirling in the mind and making it difficult to focus.

For instance, while sitting, a practitioner might suddenly remember an important email to reply to or the plot of a TV show they watched last night. Or they might feel excited about an upcoming weekend feast and start planning how they’ll enjoy it. These seemingly trivial thoughts are enormous obstacles to entering samadhi. They not only distract attention but also disturb inner peace, preventing the mind from becoming one-pointed. From a Buddhist perspective, the essence of these distractive thoughts is the mind’s reaction to the six sense objects (forms, sounds, smells, tastes, tangibles, and mental objects), which arises as the afflictions of greed, aversion, and delusion. To overcome this difficulty, the practitioner must resolve it through awareness. This means developing a high degree of mindfulness. Once a distractive thought arises, one must immediately be aware of its presence without following it. Only then can its influence gradually be dissolved.

Buddhist scriptures explicitly point out how the mind’s grasping at the six sense objects obstructs meditation. For example, the Mahāyāna Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra details “ten kinds of baseless conduct,” which, if not countered, will severely hinder the accomplishment of samadhi:

There are also ten kinds of baseless conduct. If a meditator practices even one of them, they will ultimately be unable to accomplish any samadhi; and even if they have already accomplished it, they will quickly lose it. What are these ten? First, delighting in one’s work. Second, delighting in conversation. Third, delighting in sleep. Fourth, delighting in seeking profit. Fifth, delighting in beautiful forms. Sixth, delighting in pleasant sounds. Seventh, delighting in fragrant smells. Eighth, delighting in delicious tastes. Ninth, delighting in fine tangibles. Tenth, delighting in searching and analyzing thoughts.[5]

The “delighting in one’s work, conversation, and seeking profit” as well as the grasping at “beautiful forms, pleasant sounds, fragrant smells, delicious tastes, and fine tangibles” mentioned in the scripture are all concrete manifestations of the mind grasping at the six sense objects. They directly cause inner distraction, making it difficult to achieve samadhi or causing the loss of an already-gained meditative state.

2．The Manifestation of Drowsiness

In contrast to the “dynamic interference” of distractive thoughts, another common “static obstacle” in meditation is drowsiness. Drowsiness primarily manifests as a lack of mental energy, sleepiness, physical and mental fatigue, and a cloudy mind. During seated meditation, practitioners might feel their eyelids heavy, their head swollen, or even unknowingly doze off. This not only directly impacts the quality of their practice but also prevents them from progressing deeper.

Physiologically, drowsiness can stem from factors like insufficient sleep, overeating, or physical exhaustion. However, its deeper cause is related to mental laxity. When the mind cannot stay alert and clear, it falls into a state of chaos, making inner observation impossible. If not noticed and corrected in time, drowsiness will envelop the mind like a thick fog, preventing the practitioner from maintaining mindfulness or clearly observing inner changes. Therefore, overcoming drowsiness is just as important as countering distractive thoughts; both are major afflictions that practitioners must face and work to overcome at the introductory stage of samadhi.

Following the teachings from the Mahāyāna Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra mentioned earlier, “delighting in sleep” is the most direct manifestation of drowsiness. Moreover, the phrase “delighting in searching and analyzing thoughts” can lead to a lax and scattered mind due to an attachment to finding faults. If these “baseless conducts” exist, even a preliminary meditative state can be quickly lost. This highlights again the crucial role of maintaining alertness and clarity in meditation—it is the fundamental way to ensure the mind is not bound by drowsiness.

(II) Paving the Path Through the Jungle of Afflictions

Having recognized that afflictions are the fundamental cause of difficulty in beginning meditation, the first step is to pave a road through this “jungle of afflictions.” The starting point and core of this path is awareness.

Awareness is a crucial concept in Buddhist meditation. It guides the practitioner to forge a path of clarity through afflictions like distractive thoughts and drowsiness. Without the guidance of awareness, the mind will forever be obscured by afflictions, making it impossible to enter the gate of samadhi.

1. Concept and Depth: Awareness means that the practitioner is no longer entrapped by any confusion and can completely break free from the state of “chasing clouds and dreams.” Here, “chasing clouds and dreams” is a metaphor for a practitioner’s endless pursuit and indulgence in the five worldly desires (wealth, forms, fame, food, and sleep)—for example, the craving for food or the indulgence in sleep. Regardless of what affliction arises in meditation, true awareness enables the mind not to pursue it. It represents a high degree of insight, allowing one to immediately recognize when an affliction arises in the mind and to not follow it.
2. Breaking Free from Entanglement: The core of awareness is to completely detach from the entanglement with all things (such as food, clothing, wealth, and power). This is not just a theoretical understanding but a practical application of mind and body. When a practitioner recognizes the harm of attachment to something and can detach from it, that is a manifestation of the power of awareness. Only by completely leaving these entanglements can the mind gain true freedom and continue to progress on the path of meditation. Awareness is also the embodiment of right mindfulness and right understanding, as recorded in the Saṁyuktāgama: “What are the Four Foundations of Mindfulness? The contemplation of the body within the body, with diligence, proper method, right mindfulness, and right understanding, to subdue worldly greed and sorrow.”[6]Through right mindfulness and right understanding, the practitioner can subdue the mind’s greed and sorrow.
3. The Generation of Wisdom: The initial stage of awareness is a theoretical understanding, referred to as “wisdom from hearing”. This is the theoretical knowledge gained from listening to the Dharma, reading scriptures, or following a teacher’s guidance. However, the purpose of meditation goes far beyond this. As practice deepens, awareness will gradually deepen, culminating in empirically-gained wisdom, or “wisdom from practice”. This is the wisdom gained through one’s own direct experience through meditation. At this point, the practitioner no longer has just a theoretical understanding but has personally realized and verified the truth. This wisdom arising from awareness is also reflected in the Seven Factors of Enlightenment. For example, the Madhyamāgama mentions the “Factor of Mindfulness” and the “Factor of Equanimity”: “Contemplate the first Factor of Mindfulness, relying on detachment, on desirelessness, on cessation, giving rise to emergence from suffering. Diligently, with joy and tranquility, contemplate the seventh Factor of Equanimity, relying on detachment, on desirelessness, on cessation, progressing toward emergence from suffering. If one does not contemplate, afflictions and sorrow will arise. If one contemplates, afflictions and sorrow will not arise. This is how defilements are cut off through contemplation.”[7]This explains how, through awareness and right contemplation, one can cut off afflictions and move toward liberation.
4. The Core Element: Awareness is the “birth” stage of meditation. If one cannot truly “awaken” from afflictions and effectively break their entanglement, then subsequent practice is impossible. Without awareness, a practitioner cannot genuinely enter samadhi, let alone experience the joy of meditation or develop wisdom. Therefore, awareness is not only the first step of meditation but a core element that permeates the entire process and determines its success or failure. The Buddha emphasized this in the Dīrghāgama: “When the Tathāgata, the Truly Accomplished One, appears in the world, even until the Fourth Dhyāna, he gains happiness in the present life. Why? This is due to diligent effort, one-pointedness of mind, delighting in quietude, and not being negligent. Kasyapa! This is the perfection of precepts and the perfection of view, which is superior to all ascetic practices, subtle, and supreme.”[8]This passage powerfully points out that it is precisely because of diligent concentration, abiding in quietude, and not being negligent (i.e., the practice of awareness) that one can accomplish profound samadhi and abide happily in the present.

(III) The Foundations of Samadhi in Buddhist Scriptures

Buddhist samadhi practice is not an arbitrary invention; it is deeply rooted in the Buddha’s own realized teachings. These crystallized insights were systematically recorded in the vast Buddhist canon, providing a solid theoretical foundation and clear practical guidance for meditation. Although Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures differ in their doctrinal emphasis, they both highly affirm the importance of samadhi practice.

1. The Foundations of Samadhi in Hinayana Scriptures

Hinayana scriptures emphasize personal liberation and escape from the cycle of birth and death. Their explanations of samadhi are more specific and systematically staged. These scriptures focus on how to purify afflictions through meditation to ultimately attain the fruit of an arhat.

（1）、The Gate to Liberation and the Essential Path in the Dīrghāgama: The Dīrghāgama directly points to the essential path to liberation. The “five difficult-to-understand dharmas” mentioned in the sutra refer to five entryways to liberation. As the scripture states: “What are the five difficult-to-understand dharmas? They are the five entries to liberation: if a bhikkhu is diligent and unceasing, delights in a quiet place, focuses his mind one-pointedly, what is not yet liberated becomes liberated, what is not yet exhausted becomes exhausted, and what is not yet at peace becomes at peace.”[9]This passage explains the meaning of “liberation”: it does not refer to external freedom but to complete liberation from internal entanglements, namely the fundamental afflictions of greed, aversion, delusion, arrogance, and doubt discussed earlier. The scripture clearly emphasizes the importance for a practitioner to be “diligent and unceasing, delighting in a quiet place, and focusing the mind one-pointedly.” This requires the practitioner to have perseverance, choose a secluded location, and focus their mind on one point without attachment. Only then can they attain liberation, exhaust their afflictions, and find peace.

（2）、Specific Elucidation of Samadhi Stages: After pointing to the essential path of liberation, the Dīrghāgama further explains the specific stages and states of samadhi practice. The description of the levels of samadhi in the scripture provides a clear, verifiable blueprint for practitioners:

What is the peaceful and joyful state of a bhikkhu? Here, a bhikkhu, having cut off lust and abandoned unwholesome states, with thinking and contemplation, experiences the joy and bliss born of seclusion, and enters and abides in the first dhyāna. Having eliminated thinking and contemplation, with inner confidence and delight, the mind becomes one-pointed, without thinking or contemplation, and experiences the joy and bliss born of concentration, and enters and abides in the second dhyāna… This is the peaceful and joyful state of a bhikkhu.[10]

This passage accurately explains that the focus of the first dhyāna is on “having thinking and contemplation”. Its purpose is to achieve “one-pointedness of mind,” which leads to leaving behind distractive thoughts and attachments and thus generating great joy. The second dhyāna is a qualitative leap, with its core characteristic being “without thinking or contemplation”. At this point, the practitioner has surpassed their reliance on the provisional methods of the first dhyāna. The mind becomes completely one-pointed, and a deeper, more profound joy arises naturally from the power of concentration.

The combination of these two passages not only shows the progression of samadhi from entry to depth but also confirms that samadhi is the fundamental method for achieving a state of “peace and joy” and purifying afflictions.

2. The Depth of Samadhi in Mahayana Scriptures

Mahayana Buddhism not only encompasses the foundational principles of Hinayana samadhi but also expands the purpose of meditation to include the bodhisattva path. Its exposition of samadhi not only covers the depth of integrating both calming and insight but also emphasizes the breadth of wisdom and compassion. The Śūraṅgama Sūtra holds a pivotal position among Mahayana scriptures, and its discussion of samadhi practice is particularly profound and comprehensive. It not only provides a detailed account of the ultimate meditative state—the Śūraṅgama Samadhi—but also dedicates a lengthy section to a meticulous explanation of the various demonic phenomena that may arise during meditation, serving as a vital warning to practitioners. One of the core purposes of this sutra is precisely to prevent practitioners from going astray in meditation and to ensure their practice follows the right path. In the sutra, the venerable Ānanda once asked the Buddha a question that reflects a common confusion faced by practitioners in the Dharma-Ending Age: “With false teachers speaking like the sands of the Ganges, how can one who wishes to collect his mind to enter samadhi be established in the Bodhimanda and remain far from all demonic phenomena? How can he prevent the Bodhi mind from regressing?”[11]This question reveals the context of Ānanda’s query: in an era of rampant false teachings, how can practitioners, while pursuing genuine samadhi, effectively avoid being disturbed by demonic phenomena and steadfastly walk the Bodhi path without feeling discouraged? The Buddha’s detailed revelation of the “Fifty Skandha Demons” in the sutra is a direct and authoritative response to this question. These teachings aim to guide practitioners to discern demonic realms and hold fast to the right path, providing extremely important guidance and a warning for modern meditators seeking to avoid becoming “a malevolent fanatic with psychic powers.” (The specific content of the “Fifty Skandha Demons” will be detailed in the section “III. States and Problems During Samadhi.”)

3. The Relationship Between Samadhi and Wisdom

Across all Buddhist scriptures, both Mahayana and Hinayana, it is repeatedly emphasized that samadhi is the fundamental path to awakening wisdom. The Buddha taught this principle on numerous occasions. For example, the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment clearly states: “All bodhisattvas’ unimpeded and pure wisdom is born from samadhi.”[12]This sentence reveals the ultimate purpose and core value of meditation practice. Samadhi is not merely about achieving a calm and tranquil mind; it is the necessary condition and prerequisite for the arising of wisdom. Without a solid foundation in samadhi, the mind cannot become one-pointed, and its inherent wisdom cannot manifest. Only in a state of deep concentration can one truly perceive the reality of all phenomena, thus giving rise to a pure, undefiled, and unimpeded wisdom. Therefore, gaining wisdom through samadhi is not just a key stage of Buddhist meditation practice; it is its ultimate goal.

III. States and Problems During Samadhi

When a practitioner has initially grasped the essence of awareness and holds fast to the foundation of precepts, they formally enter the practical stage of samadhi. At this stage, they can experience inner transformations and the manifestation of meditative states, but they may also encounter various tests and the risk of deviating from the right path. This section will use an empirical perspective to analyze the specific experiences and potential problems at each level of samadhi.

(I) Empirical Analysis of Samadhi Levels and Progress

Buddhist samadhi is typically divided into different levels, with the Four Dhyānas and Eight States of Samadhi being the most common. These levels represent a gradual process of purifying the mind, moving from a scattered state to one of extreme one-pointedness, and from coarse to subtle afflictions. From an empirical standpoint, each level of samadhi presents its unique psychological and physiological experiences.

1. The First Dhyāna

The First Dhyāna is the first significant milestone in entering samadhi, marking the point where the practitioner’s scattered mind begins to enter a preliminary meditative state.

（1）、With Thinking: In the state of the First Dhyāna, the meaning of awareness becomes more subtle and profound. It refers to the realization and breakthrough of various afflictions—such as greed—while in the state of concentration. This is no longer just a simple noticing of distractive thoughts as they arise, but rather an immediate awareness of their illusory nature when an affliction (e.g., a craving for the five desires) appears, without being led by it. This realization keeps the mind highly alert and vigilant, no longer giving rise to a continuous stream of afflictions.

（2）、With Contemplation: Here, contemplation is the ability to focus the mind’s energy on a single point, much like a magnifying glass focusing sunlight or a fist’s force concentrating on the tip of a needle. This concentration can effectively break through the obstacles of afflictions, karma, and retributions. Although the power of contemplation can penetrate coarse afflictions and make the mind one-pointed, the “thinking and contemplation” at this stage are still considered provisional methods for entering the state of concentration. The practitioner’s mind has not yet reached a state of complete stability, and there are still subtle mental fluctuations and an attachment to the thinking and contemplation themselves.

（3）、Observing the Breath: When distractive thoughts no longer interfere frequently and the mind is relatively stable, the practitioner can focus on observing their breath. This involves continuously and subtly tying the mind firmly to the inflow and outflow of breath.[13]As the observation of breath deepens, the mind gradually becomes collected, leading to a state of inner stillness. At this point, the body and mind feel a sense of lightness and tranquility.

（4）、One-pointedness of Mind: Through the combined effect of “thinking, contemplation,” and “observing the breath,” the practitioner can achieve a state of concentration that does not follow distractive thoughts (i.e., is not affected by the sensations of the six senses). This is the preliminary “concentration.” At this stage, the mind still has subtle awareness and contemplation, but it can maintain a state of one-pointedness for an extended period.

2. The Second Dhyāna Stage

When a practitioner deepens their practice based on the First Dhyāna, they enter the Second Dhyāna. This is a qualitative leap, signifying entry into a more formal meditative state. The Madhyamāgama provides a precise summary of the transition from the First to the Second Dhyāna: “That person, whose thinking and contemplation have ceased, whose mind is inwardly still and one-pointed, without thinking and contemplation, experiences the joy and bliss born of concentration, and enters and abides in the Second Dhyāna.”[14]

This passage clearly describes the process from the First to the Second Dhyāna. In the First Dhyāna, the practitioner still relies on “with thinking and contemplation” to subdue distractive thoughts and make the mind tranquil (inner stillness, one-pointedness). However, upon entering the Second Dhyāna, they transcend this reliance and directly experience joy and bliss born of the power of concentration. The specific steps are as follows:

（1）、Letting Go of the Provisional Methods of “Thinking and Contemplation”: The key to entering the Second Dhyāna is to let go of “thinking and contemplation,” which served as the “stairs” for the First Dhyāna. Just as one must let go of the handrail after climbing a staircase, if one remains attached to the provisional methods of “thinking and contemplation,” they cannot enter a deeper meditative state. At this stage, the mind can automatically remain one-pointed, reaching a state of “without thinking and contemplation.”

（2）、The Essence of the Second Dhyāna: In the Second Dhyāna, the practitioner’s inner world is completely empty and free from any attachments. This “emptying” is a true letting go, where even the awareness of “being empty” does not arise. The mind no longer forms concepts or engages in analysis; it is like a clear mirror that reflects everything distinctly without creating, grasping, or analyzing. At this point, the mind state is extremely pure and transparent.

（3）、Purity and Bliss: Upon entering the Second Dhyāna, the practitioner begins to experience a “demagnetization” process, similar to iron filings gradually falling off a magnet. This symbolizes the deep-seated “dust and defilements” that have accumulated on the six senses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind) since time immemorial, now being “detached and unbound.” This profound detachment brings about immense purity and bliss of body and mind, confirming the state of “what is not yet liberated becomes liberated, what is not yet exhausted becomes exhausted, and what is not yet at peace becomes at peace” mentioned earlier in the Dīrghāgama. At this point, the practitioner will experience a “joy” and “bliss” that arise naturally from concentration, a meditative ecstasy that permeates the entire body and is incomparably more comfortable and blissful than any worldly sensory pleasure. However, this feeling of bliss has an important empirical characteristic: the practitioner cannot move their mind; as soon as a thought arises, this bliss immediately disappears. This is also a severe test for the practitioner.

（4）、The Test of Joy and Bliss: The joy and bliss of the Second Dhyāna are often more difficult to abandon than worldly afflictions. They can become a new, subtle attachment for the practitioner, making them unwilling to advance further. Because this extraordinary bliss vanishes as soon as a thought arises, the practitioner might stagnate in an effort to maintain this state of comfort, no longer seeking a deeper level of samadhi. This attachment to the joy of meditation becomes a highly hidden obstacle on the path of practice, hindering further breakthrough.

(II) Demonic Realms in Meditation and the Protection of Precepts

As practitioners delve deeper into a state of samadhi and experience profound inner bliss, they also face a higher-level challenge: the manifestation of demonic realms and the risk of becoming a demon. This is not only a severe test of one’s character but also the ultimate trial of their right understanding and adherence to precepts.

1.The Manifestation of Demonic Realms and the Risk of Becoming a Demon

In the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, the Buddha provides an exceptionally detailed explanation of the demonic realms or phenomena that can appear during meditation. These meticulous descriptions serve as a crucial warning to practitioners of later generations. These demonic realms are subtle demonic manifestations that arise as the practitioner breaks through the Five Aggregates (Form, Feeling, Perception, Mental Formations, and Consciousness).

The “Fifty Skandha Demons” section of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra meticulously analyzes the various demonic realms that can appear during meditation. They typically arise when the practitioner’s foundation is unstable—for example, due to a lack of right understanding or a failure to uphold pure precepts—or when they develop attachment to or craving for a particular state. For instance, when a practitioner sees strange visions, hears profound sounds, experiences unusual physical or mental sensations, or has abilities and thoughts they’ve never had before, they can easily become deluded. They might mistakenly believe they have attained a certain spiritual fruition or become misled by these illusions. Subsequently, they may use the “psychic powers” born of samadhi to satisfy their personal greed, aversion, and delusion—for example, by seeking fame and fortune, manipulating others, or even harming sentient beings. In this situation, instead of purifying the mind, meditation can lead the practitioner to become a “malevolent fanatic with psychic powers.” As recorded in Volume 9 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra: “Again, those good men in samadhi, seeing the form aggregate extinguished and the feeling aggregate becoming clear, think they have reached a sufficient stage and suddenly give rise to immense and baseless arrogance… Those who deeply believe them are misled and cast into the Avīci Hell. Having lost the right concentration, they fall into ruin.”[15]This outcome is contrary to the Buddhist spirit of compassion and represents the greatest danger on the path of practice. The specific details of the “Fifty Skandha Demons” are not fully explained here but can be found in Volumes 9 and 10 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra.[16]

2. Upholding Precepts as the Fundamental Protection

In the face of potential demonic realms and the risk of becoming a demon in meditation, the Buddha offered the most fundamental and effective protection: upholding precepts. Precepts are not just external behavioral norms; they are also an internal discipline for the mind. They serve as a solid safeguard to ensure practitioners stay on the right path. In the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, when the Buddha taught the Four Pure and Clear Instructions, he warned that without a solid foundation in precepts, it is difficult to enter samadhi. Even if one does, they are sure to become a demon or a monster.[17] This profoundly illustrates the extreme importance of precepts, which are the fundamental guarantee for the safety of meditation.

In Volume 7 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, the Buddha’s instruction to the venerable Ānanda goes straight to the core, emphasizing the crucial role of precepts in collecting the mind to enter a meditative state:

You ask about collecting the mind. I will now first explain the wonderful gate to practice to enter samadhi. To seek the Bodhisattva Path, you must first hold these four types of proper conduct as pure as ice and frost. The three evil deeds of the mind and the four evil deeds of the mouth will not arise. Ānanda, if these four matters are not neglected or lost, your mind will not even grasp at forms, smells, tastes, and tangibles. How, then, can any demonic phenomena arise?[18]

This passage clearly emphasizes that upholding the fundamental precepts—the four moral principles of not killing, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, or lying—is the key to ensuring one does not enter a demonic realm during meditation. The Buddha pointed out that if these four fundamental principles are upheld, as pure and undefiled as ice and frost, then all the secondary afflictions born of greed, aversion, and delusion (e.g., the three mental evils: greed, aversion, delusion; and the four verbal evils: lying, double-tongue, harsh speech, and frivolous talk) lose their fundamental cause for arising. The scripture further clarifies: if these four fundamental precepts are not lost or violated in the slightest, then your consciousness will not even grasp at the external objects of form, sound, smell, taste, and touch. How, then, could any demonic phenomena arise?

From this, we can see that the purity of precepts—which progresses from “holding the body still” to “holding the mind still,” ultimately reaching a state where both are as pure as ice and frost—can effectively prevent psychic abilities from combining with afflictions. This, in turn, keeps the practitioner from falling into evil paths or becoming a demon or monster. When the power of precepts deeply penetrates the mind, it can restrain thoughts from following external circumstances and from being moved by worldly temptations. Then, even if certain demonic realms appear during meditation, the practitioner can use clear wisdom to discern their true nature and not be deluded by them. They will not become attached to these abilities or use them to do evil, thus ultimately avoiding the risk of becoming a “malevolent fanatic with psychic powers.” Therefore, precepts are not just the escort vessel for the path of meditation but the fundamental guarantee that the direction of practice is correct. Without the protection of precepts, even a high level of samadhi can lead to falling into the hell of continuous suffering.

IV. Accomplishment in Samadhi

(I) The Manifestation of Wisdom and Psychic Powers

The accomplishment of samadhi practice does not mean gaining some kind of external superpower. Rather, it is the natural development of one’s inherent “supernormal abilities” when the mind reaches a state of ultimate purity and one-pointedness. This is a process where one’s inner potential is activated, and it is a natural result of meditation.

1. The Effect of “Root-Dust Falling Away”: As meditation deepens, practitioners gradually experience the effect of the “dust and defilements” on their six sense roots (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind) falling away. This “dust and defilement” doesn’t refer to physical grime but to the afflictions, habitual patterns, and delusional attachments that have long been attached to the six roots. When this “dust and defilement” is completely shed, the six sense roots regain their inherent purity and sensitivity. For example, when the eye-root becomes pure, it can be endowed with the “eight hundred merits.”[19]This means that the eyes are no longer limited to what is visible to the physical eye but can genuinely perceive everything. As recorded in Volume 9 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra: “Again, he sees Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges, filling the space, with magnificent towers and palaces. He can see down to the hells and up to the heavenly palaces without obstruction.”[20]This is what is known in Buddhism as the “divine eye,” which can see not only day and night but also hells and heavenly realms with clarity.
2. The Attainment of Pure, Innate Wisdom: As the “dust and defilements” on the Five Aggregates (form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness) are completely broken through, the practitioner can reach the state of “dry wisdom.” This state signifies that the practitioner is endowed with a pure, innate wisdom and can truly perceive everything. As explained in Volume 8 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra: “This good person’s craving is dry, the roots and objects do not connect, and the present remaining body will not continue to be reborn. His clinging mind is clear and empty, purely wisdom. The wisdom nature is clear and complete, illuminating the ten directions. This wisdom is dry, and so it is called the state of dry wisdom.”[21]This passage clearly points out that when the root of afflictions (such as craving) is exhausted, the mind can attain the state where pure, innate wisdom manifests.
3. The Embodiment of Psychic Powers: When this pure, innate wisdom is embodied in the six sense roots, it naturally manifests as psychic powers. Taking the eye-root as an example, this wisdom embodied in the eye-root is the “divine eye of wisdom and realization.” It is both wisdom and a psychic power. These psychic powers are a natural product of samadhi, not something that the practitioner deliberately seeks, nor are they the ultimate goal of meditation.
4. The Inter-functioning of the Six Roots: By delving even deeper into samadhi, when a large amount of the “dust and defilement” on the six sense roots has fallen away, the practitioner can attain the state where the six roots inter-function. This means that the eye-root can not only see but also hear, smell, and touch; the ear-root can not only hear but also see, smell, etc. For example, the practitioner can see things without their eyes or “see” the world without their ears. At this point, they see, hear, and perceive entirely based on their fundamental nature, and the functions of the six roots are greatly expanded. Regarding this, Volume 10 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra clearly states: “When the consciousness aggregate is exhausted, your present six roots inter-function. From this inter-functioning, you can enter the diamond-like dry wisdom of a Bodhisattva. The perfectly bright, refined mind manifests and transforms within, like a pure lapis lazuli containing a precious moon.”[22]This passage further reveals that after the consciousness aggregate is extinguished, the six roots inter-function, and this is an important sign of entering the state of dry wisdom and the manifestation of pure, innate wisdom.

(II) The Ultimate Goal

When a practitioner, guided by right understanding and upholding precepts, has passed the tests of entering samadhi and undergone the training of its stages, their practice enters an entirely new phase: the accomplishment of samadhi. This signifies not only a deep transformation of one’s character but also the inevitable result of wisdom and psychic powers manifesting naturally. However, the ultimate goal of Buddhist meditation practice extends far beyond personal purity and the manifestation of psychic powers; it points toward the great vow to benefit sentient beings.

As the Buddha stated in Volume 1 of the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment: “All bodhisattvas’ unimpeded and pure wisdom is born from samadhi.”[23]This scripture re-emphasizes that samadhi is the fundamental path to awakening unimpeded and pure wisdom, serving as the ultimate guide for meditation practice. The true meaning of accomplishment in samadhi lies not just in the display of extraordinary psychic powers. More importantly, it is about purifying the mind completely through the cultivation of concentration and manifesting the inherent wisdom of reality. This wisdom is not only the key to personal liberation but also the foundation for practicing the bodhisattva path. As explained in Volume 17 of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra: “Bodhisattvas, therefore, give rise to great compassion and wish to benefit sentient beings with the permanent and blissful nirvāṇa. This permanent and blissful nirvāṇa arises from genuine wisdom, and genuine wisdom arises from one-pointed samadhi.”[24]This passage clearly reveals the perfect sequence: one-pointed samadhi gives rise to genuine wisdom, genuine wisdom is the permanent and blissful nirvāṇa, and this nirvāṇa is then used to benefit sentient beings. The purpose of the psychic powers born from samadhi is also to propagate the Dharma and benefit sentient beings, not to satisfy one’s own entertainment. Volume 30 of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra also states: “A Bodhisattva who enters deep samadhi gives rise to inconceivable psychic powers and can, in a single thought, reach all the Buddha-worlds in the ten directions.”[25]This shows that the inconceivable psychic powers that a Bodhisattva gains through profound samadhi enable them to reach the ten directions of the world quickly, creating vast opportunities to benefit sentient beings. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra in 600 Fascicles, Volume 394, further clarifies the role of psychic powers in propagating the Dharma and benefiting living beings:

Just as a bird without wings cannot freely fly in the sky and reach distant places, so too are the Bodhisattvas and Mahāsattvas. If they do not have the Pāramitā of Psychic Powers, they cannot freely teach the Dharma and bring benefit to sentient beings… If they develop the Pāramitā of Psychic Powers, they can teach the Dharma as they wish and benefit and bring peace and joy to all sentient beings.[26]

This passage uses a vivid metaphor to emphasize that the Pāramitā of Psychic Powers is like the wings of a bird, an indispensable expedient for a Bodhisattva to freely teach the Dharma and benefit living beings. Therefore, the development of psychic powers is for the more effective fulfillment of the Bodhisattva’s mission to propagate the Dharma and benefit living beings.

In conclusion, the goal of samadhi practice is to integrate the physical and mental purity, the manifestation of psychic powers, the unimpeded and pure wisdom, and the great compassion that arise from meditation. The ultimate aim is to realize the great vow to benefit and bring peace and joy to all sentient beings and to accomplish the noble mission of spreading the Dharma.

V. Conclusion

This study aimed to explore the stages, challenges, and accomplishments of Buddhist samadhi practice, revealing it as a practical path toward liberation. Through an analysis of canonical doctrines and empirical experiences, this thesis has summarized several core points and the ultimate goal of samadhi practice.

(I) The Stages and Core Elements of Samadhi

This research reveals that Buddhist samadhi practice is a rigorous, progressive process that cannot be accomplished overnight. Practitioners must begin at the most fundamental level, with the primary task being to cultivate awareness. This means becoming keenly aware of and effectively overcoming the mind’s distractive thoughts and drowsiness. These fundamental afflictions are like an intricate jungle that severely entangles and obstructs the mind’s purity and stability. Only through continuous awareness can one gradually be liberated from these entanglements, paving the way to enter deeper levels of samadhi.

Subsequently, practitioners must strictly uphold precepts, which serve as the solid foundation to ensure that their practice develops positively. Protected by the precepts, one can gradually undergo the First Dhyāna training of “with thinking and contemplation” and then reach the profound state of the Second Dhyāna of “without thinking and contemplation.” At this point, the mind has already transcended attachment to the provisional methods of the First Dhyāna and genuinely entered a deeper and vaster power of concentration. Throughout this entire process, awareness remains the key to both entering and deepening samadhi, and it is the core element for resolving all confusions and breaking free from all entanglements.

(II)Guarding Against Attachment and Demonic Realms in Meditation

During samadhi practice, a practitioner may experience a sense of tranquility and comfort, a joy that is a natural manifestation of entering a deep meditative state. However, this thesis specifically warns that this pleasant feeling can itself become a new attachment. If a practitioner becomes immersed in the joy of samadhi and is unwilling to let go of their grasping, it can become a serious obstacle to entering deeper stages of meditation. True liberation requires letting go of all attachments, including the craving for the joy of samadhi, to inspire a deeper level of wisdom and psychic powers, ultimately reaching a state of mind free from any hindrance.

(III) Attitude and Ultimate Goal of Practice

Given the stages and potential risks of samadhi practice, this thesis calls for all practitioners to possess right understanding. This means deeply comprehending the Buddha’s teachings, following the stages of practice, and never blindly pursuing sensory pleasure or rushing to gain psychic powers. Practitioners should always maintain a humble and cautious attitude, constantly examining their minds to avoid giving rise to arrogant self-conceit and falling into a demonic realm.

As the Buddha repeatedly taught in the scriptures, “unimpeded and pure wisdom is born from samadhi.”[27]This reiterates that samadhi is the fundamental path to awakening all wisdom. The perfect accomplishment of this path depends on a solid foundation, pure precepts, and a non-attached attitude toward all states. By forging a path through the jungle of afflictions and guarding against the demonic phenomena and attachments in meditation, practitioners can enter profound samadhi, uncover their inherent “supernormal abilities,” and ultimately achieve the goals of liberation and altruism. This means using the wisdom and psychic powers they have realized to better benefit all sentient beings and fulfill the noble mission of propagating the Buddha’s teachings.

References  

Ancient Texts (Ordered chronologically by dynasty)

﹝Eastern Jin﹞Saṅghadeva, trans.: Madhyamāgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01.

﹝Yao Qin﹞Buddhayaśas and Zhu Fonian, trans.: Dīrghāgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01.

﹝Yao Qin﹞Kumārajīva, trans.: Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 25.

﹝Liu Song﹞Guṇabhadra, trans.: Saṃyuktāgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 02.

﹝Tang﹞Xuánzàng, trans.: Abhidharma-prakaraṇa-pāda-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 26.

﹝Tang﹞Xuánzàng, trans.: Mahāyāna Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 13.

﹝Tang﹞Xuánzàng, trans.: Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 06.

﹝Tang﹞Wonhyo, ed.: Vajrasamādhi-sūtra-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 34.

﹝Tang﹞Buddhatrāta, trans.: Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 17.

﹝Tang﹞Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19.

[1] Xuánzàng, trans.: Abhidharma-prakaraṇa-pāda-śāstra, scroll 2, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 26, p. 699c.

[2] Wonhyo, ed.: Vajrasamādhi-sūtra-śāstra, scroll 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 34, p. 962b.

[3] Kumārajīva, trans.: Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, scroll 14: “This is how holding precepts protects the faculties. When the faculties are protected, dhyāna arises; when dhyāna arises, wisdom arises,” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 25, p. 163a.

[4] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 6, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 131c.

[5] Xuánzàng, trans.: Mahāyāna Kṣitigarbha Daśacakra Sūtra, scroll 3, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 13, p. 735c.

[6] Guṇabhadra, trans.: Saṃyuktāgama, scroll 20, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 02, p. 139c.

[7] Saṅghadeva, trans.: Madhyamāgama, scroll 2, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 432c.

[8] Buddhayashas and Zhu Fonian, trans.: Dīrghāgama, scroll 16, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 103c.

[9] Buddhayashas and Zhu Fonian, trans.: Dīrghāgama, scroll 9, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 53c.

[10] Buddhayashas and Zhu Fonian, trans.: Dīrghāgama, scroll 6, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 42b.

[11] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 6, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 131c.

[12] Buddhatrāta, trans.: Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, scroll 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 17, p. 919a.

[13] Saṅghadeva, trans.: Madhyamāgama, scroll 10: “Cultivating the in-breath and out-breath severs distractive thoughts,” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 492a.

[14] Saṅghadeva, trans.: Madhyamāgama, scroll 55, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01, p. 755a.

[15] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 9, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, pp. 148c–149a.

[16] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scrolls 9–10, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, pp. 147c–154b.

[17] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 6: “If the minds of the six kinds of sentient beings in the world are not lewd, they will not follow the continuous cycle of birth and death… What I have said is called the Buddha’s teaching. What is not like this teaching is the teaching of Papiyas,” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, pp. 131c–132c.

[18] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 7, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 133a.

[19] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 10: “Riding on the eight hundred merits of the eye-root,” Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 151c.

[20] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 9, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 148a.

[21] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 8, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 142a.

[22] Paramiti, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, scroll 10, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19, p. 154b.

[23] Same as footnote 12.

[24] Kumārajīva, trans.: Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, scroll 17, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 25, p. 180c.

[25] Kumārajīva, trans.: Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra, scroll 30, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 25, p. 283c.

[26] Xuánzàng, trans.: Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, scroll 394, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 06, p. 1041b.

[27] Same as footnote 12.

(Issue 22)

On Samādhi

Instructor: Bennie Spirit

Shi Wuguang

Author: Wang Huaigu

June 30, 2025

Abstract

The Buddhist study of “Samādhi” (定) is one of the Three Learnings and a crucial method in Buddhist practice. This paper delves into the core concept of “Samādhi” in Buddhism. Through research on relevant sutras and treatises, it expounds on the meaning, classification, practice methods, and important role of Samādhi within the Buddhist practice system. The aim is to reveal the key significance of Samādhi for eradicating afflictions, attaining liberation, and achieving enlightenment, helping practitioners better understand and practice Samādhi.

Keywords: Three Learnings, Buddhism, Samādhi, Practice, Liberation

Table of Contents

I. Introduction

… 4

II. Meaning of Samādhi

… 7

III. Classification of Samādhi

… 10

IV. Methods of Practicing Samādhi

… 19

V. Function of Samādhi

… 27

VI. Conclusion

… 32

I. Introduction

Buddhism, as a profound religion and philosophical system, encompasses numerous aspects in its practice methods and doctrines, and Samādhi (定) holds a pivotal position within it.

Samādhi is the wondrous method for detaching and unbinding. It not only manifests as a special mental state but is also one of the main outlines of Buddhist practical methods, forming the Three Learnings along with Precepts and Wisdom. In the Eightfold Noble Path, Right Samādhi is one of them. In the Five Roots and Five Powers, Samādhi also exists in the forms of the Root of Samādhi and the Power of Samādhi, respectively. In the Six Pāramitās (Six Perfections), Dhyāna (禪定) is also an important component.

Samādhi, in Sanskrit, is called Samādhi (三昧), also transliterated as Sanmodi, Sanmoboputi, etc., meaning a mental state where the mind is concentrated on a single object without distraction. In the course of Buddhist practice, Samādhi is regarded as the indispensable path to wisdom and liberation. For instance, “Buddha’s unobstructed pure wisdom all arises from Dhyāna-samādhi, reaching the other shore with great wisdom” is stated in Dharmapāla-śāstra . Also, as stated in Saṃyukta Āgama, “If a bhikkhu, free from initial and sustained application, with internal purity and single-mindedness, fixates on Dhyāna, and enters and abides in the first Dhyāna, replete with joy born of seclusion, this is called the first Dhyāna”. It is evident that the practice of Samādhi permeates all stages of Buddhist practice and plays an indispensable role in helping practitioners achieve mental transformation and the realization of truth.

II. Meaning of Samādhi

In Buddhist sutras and treatises, the explanations of Samādhi are rich and profound. Literally, Samādhi refers to the mind’s concentration and stability.

Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra  mentions: “What is Samādhi? It means the mind’s single-pointedness through careful and correct observation of the object”. This indicates that Samādhi is not merely the mind’s singleness, but also a deep, concentrated observation of the object, enabling the mind to stably abide on a single object. Single-pointedness of mind means that the mind is not shaken by external disturbances and internal杂念 (distractions), thereby achieving a state of high concentration and tranquility.

Samādhi also contains deeper spiritual connotations. It is a state of mind that transcends worldly disturbances, enabling practitioners to free themselves from the shackles of afflictions such as greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance, and doubt. In the state of Samādhi, the practitioner’s inner mind is like a calm lake, capable of clearly reflecting the true nature of things, thereby gaining insight into the true nature of all phenomena. This insight is not based on worldly cognition, but rather on wisdom induced by Samādhi, transcending concepts and discriminations, directly experiencing the essence of things. Samādhi is an important tool for practitioners to achieve spiritual sublimation and enlightenment. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can gradually purify their minds, develop inner potential, and ultimately achieve the goal of liberation.

III. Classification of Samādhi

3.1 Worldly Samādhi

3.1.1 Four Dhyānas

The Four Dhyānas, namely the first Dhyāna, second Dhyāna, third Dhyāna, and fourth Dhyāna, are important worldly Samādhis in Buddhism. The first Dhyāna, also known as the “Stage of Joy and Pleasure Born of Seclusion: because it is free from all defilements of desire and all afflictions,” is where practitioners enter a state free from coarse afflictions by being detached from desire and unwholesome states, thereby generating feelings of joy and pleasure. At this time, the mind is concentrated on a single object, and initial and sustained application (seeking and pondering) have not yet completely ceased. As stated in

Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya-kārikā-vṛtti (《俱舍論頌疏》): “In the first Dhyāna, being associated with seeking and pondering, it is called abiding in the first Dhyāna”. The joy and pleasure of the first Dhyāna arise from the liberation of body and mind from the coarseness of the desire realm, allowing practitioners to experience a relatively serene and pleasant state of mind.

The second Dhyāna is called the “Stage of Joy and Pleasure Born of Samādhi: because seeking and pondering have been abandoned and defiling obstacles overcome”. Building on the first Dhyāna, practitioners further cease seeking and pondering, making the inner mind even more tranquil. At this time, the power of Samādhi is even stronger, giving rise to deeper joy and pleasure born of Samādhi. This joy and pleasure are purer and more lasting than the joy and pleasure born of seclusion in the first Dhyāna, as they no longer depend on being free from the afflictions of the desire realm, but arise directly from Samādhi. The state of the second Dhyāna allows practitioners to feel the intermingling of inner peace and joy, as if immersed in a serene and beautiful state.

The third Dhyāna is called the “Stage of Wonderful Pleasure Apart from Joy: due to abiding in expedient acts that bring benefit and pleasure”. In this stage, practitioners abandon the joy of the second Dhyāna and enter a more subtle state of pleasure. Joy is a relatively coarse emotion, while pleasure is deeper and more internal. The pleasure of the third Dhyāna is the result of a high degree of tranquility and harmony of body and mind. It transcends the fluctuations of joy, enabling practitioners to experience an extreme tranquility and delight. In the third Dhyāna, the practitioner’s breathing becomes extremely subtle, and the body and mind are as if in an ethereal state, filled with unspeakable wonderful feelings.

The fourth Dhyāna is called the “Stage of Purity of Equanimity and Mindfulness: because suffering and pleasure have been abandoned, good and evil thoughts subdued, neither suffering nor pleasure, and mindfulness has been abandoned; practiced expediently, perfectly pure”. Building on the third Dhyāna, practitioners further abandon pleasure and attain a state of “equanimity” that is neither suffering nor pleasure. At this time, mindfulness also becomes extremely pure, and the mind is as pure and undefiled as empty space, far removed from all relative sensations and distractions. The state of the fourth Dhyāna is the most profound of worldly Samādhis, representing an ultimate tranquility and equality. Practitioners in this state can transcend all distinctions of suffering and pleasure, achieving a pure mental stillness.

3.1.2 Four Formless Dhyānas

The Four Formless Dhyānas include the Dhyāna of Boundless Space, the Dhyāna of Boundless Consciousness, the Dhyāna of Nothingness, and the Dhyāna of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception. In the Dhyāna of Boundless Space, practitioners transcend attachment to the material world by contemplating that all material phenomena are empty and non-existent, thus focusing the mind on infinite space. In this Dhyāna state, practitioners feel themselves merging with space, freed from the constraints of the material world, entering a vast and boundless spiritual realm.

In the Dhyāna of Boundless Consciousness, practitioners shift their contemplation from boundless space to boundless consciousness, realizing the infinitude of consciousness. At this time, the mind is concentrated on the boundlessness of consciousness, transcending attachment to space, entering a Dhyāna state with consciousness as the object. In the Dhyāna of Boundless Consciousness, practitioners experience the vastness and endlessness of consciousness, feeling the profundity and mystery of the spiritual world.

In the Dhyāna of Nothingness, practitioners further contemplate that consciousness is also empty and that nothing exists. At this time, the mind is concentrated on the state of “nothingness,” transcending attachment to consciousness, entering a more tranquil and empty Dhyāna state. In the Dhyāna of Nothingness, practitioners experience a complete sense of emptiness, as if everything has vanished, leaving only a pure stillness.

The Dhyāna of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception is the most profound of the Four Formless Dhyānas. In this state, practitioners are neither completely without thought (non-non-perception) nor do they have obvious, coarse thoughts (non-perception), being in an extremely subtle mental state. This state transcends all relative concepts and discriminations, being a state of stillness almost like Nirvāṇa, yet not fully liberated, as there still exist extremely subtle ignorance and attachment within it.

3.2 Transcendent Samādhi

3.2.1 Three Samādhis

The Three Samādhis, namely Samādhi of Emptiness, Samādhi of Signlessness, and Samādhi of Wishlessness, are important transcendent Samādhis for practitioners to attain liberation. In the Samādhi of Emptiness, practitioners break through attachment to things and false views by contemplating that all phenomena are empty, without self-nature or substantial existence.

Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa (《大智度論》) states: “Contemplating the emptiness of the five aggregates (skandhas) is called the Samādhi of Emptiness”. And Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Chapter 5, says: “Abiding in this Samādhi, one knows the true nature of all phenomena, which is ultimate emptiness; this is called the Samādhi of Emptiness. Bringing the mind to rest through the practice of emptiness and non-self is called the Samādhi of Emptiness”. In the practice of the Samādhi of Emptiness, practitioners deeply observe the nature of the five aggregates and all phenomena, realizing that they arise from causes and conditions and have no independent, unchanging self-nature, thereby transcending the concept of a real self and real things, and attaining an experience of emptiness.

The Samādhi of Signlessness, building on the Samādhi of Emptiness, further contemplates that all phenomena are signless, meaning things have no fixed, real characteristics.

Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Chapter 5, states: “What is the Samādhi of Signlessness? All phenomena have no characteristics, and all phenomena are not taken up or clung to; this is called the Samādhi of Signlessness”. All characteristics are illusory, false appearances arising from the combination of causes and conditions. Through practicing the Samādhi of Signlessness, practitioners are no longer confused by the external characteristics of things, transcending attachment to characteristics, thereby achieving inner purity and freedom. The Samādhi of Signlessness can help practitioners break free from discrimination and craving for various worldly phenomena, realizing that the essence of things is signless and has no real characteristics, thereby achieving the realization of reality.

The Samādhi of Wishlessness, also known as the Samādhi of Non-production.

Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Chapter 5: “What is non-production? It is not contemplating phenomena as empty or not empty, existent or non-existent, etc. As the Buddha said in a verse in the Dharmapada: ‘Seeing existence, one fears; seeing non-existence, one also fears. Therefore, one does not cling to existence, nor does one cling to non-existence. This is called the Samādhi of Non-production.'” Practitioners contemplate that all phenomena are impermanent and suffering, thereby no longer generating desires or wishes for anything in the world. Because everything in the world is impermanent and changing, full of suffering and afflictions, pursuing these impermanent things will only bring more suffering. By practicing the Samādhi of Wishlessness, practitioners let go of attachment and pursuit of worldly things, no longer being driven by desires, thereby being able to focus on the path to liberation and move towards the state of Nirvāṇa.

3.2.2 Śūraṅgama Samādhi

The Śūraṅgama Samādhi is an extremely extraordinary transcendent Samādhi, possessing inconceivable power and merit.

Śūraṅgama Sūtra (《大佛頂首楞嚴經》), Chapter 4, states: “If one abandons birth and death, and upholds the true eternality, and the eternal light manifests, then the defiling roots and consciousness-mind will instantly vanish. Imaginary characteristics are defilement, and discriminative feelings are impurities; when both are far removed, then your Dharma Eye will instantly become clear. How can you not achieve supreme enlightenment?” The Śūraṅgama Samādhi allows practitioners to be far removed from the two types of defilements: imagination and discriminative feelings, making the Dharma Eye clear, and achieving supreme enlightenment.

Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra (《首楞嚴三昧經》) describes the Śūraṅgama Samādhi as: “The Śūraṅgama Samādhi is not something that bodhisattvas of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, or ninth grounds can attain; only bodhisattvas residing on the tenth ground can attain this Śūraṅgama Samādhi”. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi transcends ordinary Dhyāna states. It encompasses the perfect combination of wisdom and compassion, enabling practitioners to manifest various supernatural powers and transform sentient beings while in Samādhi.

In the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, practitioners can deeply realize the true nature of all phenomena and gain ultimate insight into the universe and human life. At the same time, guided by compassion, they can skillfully and expediently use the power and wisdom of Samādhi to save sentient beings. Practitioners of Śūraṅgama Samādhi possess powerful mental and Samādhi power, enabling them to maintain inner peace and firmness when facing various worldly afflictions and sufferings, while also actively engaging in the work of transforming sentient beings, demonstrating the Buddhist spirit of compassion and salvation. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi is not only a profound Dhyāna state but also an embodiment of the Bodhisattva path. It perfectly integrates Samādhi with wisdom, self-benefit with benefiting others, and is an important path for practitioners to pursue perfect enlightenment.

IV. Methods of Practicing Samādhi

4.1 Provisions for Practicing Samādhi

4.1.1 Upholding Precepts

Upholding precepts is the foundation for practicing Samādhi, as stated in  Sūtra of the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching (《佛遺教經》): “If one can uphold pure precepts, then one can have good dharmas; if one has no pure precepts, all good merits cannot arise”. Upholding precepts helps practitioners restrain body and mind, prevent the creation of unwholesome karma, thereby creating favorable conditions for the practice of Samādhi.

Also, as stated in Śūraṅgama Sūtra (《大佛顶首楞严经》), Chapter 6: “That is, gathering the mind is precepts, from precepts arises Samādhi, from Samādhi arises wisdom. These are called the Three Unconditioned Learnings”. Why is it said that Samādhi arises from precepts? Because precepts first eliminate one’s many faults one by one. After they are eliminated, one no longer thinks about those things. At this time, in Samādhi, one naturally will still not think about those things. Thus, it can be seen that precepts are the foundation for the arising of Samādhi.

Precepts are like a strong dam that can block the flood of desires and afflictions, allowing the practitioner’s inner mind to gradually calm down. By upholding precepts, practitioners can cultivate self-discipline and self-restraint, reduce external interference and internal disturbances, and lay the foundation for the mind’s concentration and stability.

4.1.2 Having Few Desires and Being Content

Having few desires and being content is an important mindset for practicing Samādhi. In The Buddha’s Last Instructions (《佛垂般涅槃略說教誡經》), the Buddha taught practitioners: “Those with few desires have a tranquil mind, without worries or fears, always having more than enough in everything, and never feeling insufficient”. Having few desires means not being driven by excessive desires and not excessively pursuing material and sensory enjoyments. Being content means being satisfied with the wealth and possessions one has, without generating greedy thoughts. This mindset enables practitioners to break free from the shackles of desires, making the inner mind more peaceful and free. In a state of having few desires and being content, practitioners can focus more energy and attention on the practice of Samādhi, without being distracted by external temptations and internal greed.

4.1.3 Staying Away from Bustle

Staying away from bustling environments is crucial for practicing Samādhi. Bustling environments can easily make one’s mind agitated and scattered, making it difficult to concentrate on a single object.

Saṃyukta Āgama (《雜阿含經》) mentions: “Bhikkhus, you should constantly cultivate solitary and quiet places, abide in seclusion, and diligently practice Dhyāna. You should be free from laziness and low-grade diligence. The noble ones are not lazy and abide in seclusion. Diligently practice Dhyāna and transcend the flow of birth and death”. Practitioners should choose quiet, serene places for practice, such as mountains, forests, monasteries, or temples. In such environments, practitioners can stay away from worldly noise and disturbances, allowing their body and mind to relax and find peace. Staying away from bustle can reduce external interference, making it easier for practitioners to enter a state of Samādhi and focus on inner practice and the realization of the Dharma.

4.2 Specific Methods of Practicing Samādhi

4.2.1 Counting Breaths

Counting breaths is a method of practicing Samādhi by observing the breath to achieve single-mindedness.

Sutra on Samādhi in Sitting Meditation (《坐禪三昧經》) says: “If one is a beginner, one should be taught to wholeheartedly count the incoming and outgoing breaths, whether long or short, counting from one to ten”. Practitioners should sit comfortably in a quiet place, adjust their posture, and keep their body and mind relaxed. Then, they should focus their attention on the breath, counting from one to ten, with one inhalation and one exhalation counting as one. When counting breaths, one should clearly perceive the inhalation and exhalation. If distractions arise during the counting, one should restart counting from one. Through continuous practice of counting breaths, practitioners can gradually eliminate distractions and focus their mind on the breath as the object of concentration, thereby reaching an initial state of Samādhi. Counting breaths is simple and easy to practice, suitable for beginners, and can help practitioners train their attention, cultivate mental concentration, and stability.

4.2.2 Impurity Contemplation

Impurity contemplation is a method of practicing Samādhi to counteract craving by contemplating the impurity of the body. Practitioners can contemplate various impure aspects of the body, such as bodily excretions, decaying corpses, etc..

Saṃyukta Āgama (《雜阿含經》) describes impurity contemplation in detail: “This body, from foot to head, bone structure covered with flesh, covered with thin skin, filled with various impurities; observe it thoroughly: hair, nails, teeth, dirt, saliva, skin, flesh, white bones, sinews, veins, heart, liver, lungs, spleen, kidneys, large intestines, small intestines, bladder, tears, sweat, mucus, foam, fat, grease, marrow, phlegm, pus, blood, brain, juice, feces, urine”. By contemplating these impure aspects, practitioners can realize that the essence of the body is impure, thereby reducing craving and attachment to the body. Impurity contemplation can help practitioners overcome attachment to the body, purify inner desires, and make the mind clearer and more focused, laying the foundation for deeper Samādhi.

4.2.3 Buddha Contemplation

Buddha contemplation is a method of achieving Samādhi by contemplating the image of the Buddha, his merits, or reciting the Buddha’s name. Practitioners can choose a familiar Buddha image and carefully observe the solemn and auspicious marks of the Buddha, such as the Buddha’s golden body, perfect auspicious marks, and compassionate face. During contemplation, one should wholeheartedly feel the Buddha’s compassion and wisdom, and merge one’s mind with the Buddha’s image. Alternatively, one can achieve Samādhi by reciting the Buddha’s name, such as “Namo Amitābha Buddha,” concentrating wholeheartedly on the Buddha’s name, reciting continuously without interruption.

Sutra of Contemplation on Amitābha Buddha (《佛説觀無量壽經》) describes the methods and merits of Buddha contemplation in detail: “At that time, the World-Honored One told Vaidehī: ‘Do you know now? Amitābha Buddha is not far from here. You should fix your mind and contemplate those who have achieved pure karma in that land. I will now broadly explain various metaphors for you, and also enable all ordinary beings in future generations who wish to cultivate pure karma to be reborn in the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss'”. Buddha contemplation can, with the help of the Buddha’s compassion and vows, purify and empower the practitioner’s mind, gradually leading to the Samādhi state of single-mindedness.

4.2.4 Samatha-Vipaśyanā Practice

There are various methods for practicing Samādhi, among which the practice and coordination of

śamatha (止, cessation) and vipaśyanā (觀, insight) are important.

Śamatha means the settling, stability, and stillness of the mind, enabling the mind to focus on a single object without being disturbed by external influences.

Vipaśyanā, on the other hand, is the process of thought and observation based on śamatha, according to the requirements of practice. If one only practices

śamatha without vipaśyanā, the mind can easily become dull and fall into a state of drowsiness; at this time, although the practitioner’s mind is quiet, it lacks insight and contemplation of things. Conversely, if one only practices

vipaśyanā without śamatha, the mind will tend to discriminate, generating scattered thoughts and being unable to concentrate on a single object. Therefore, Buddhism emphasizes “the balance of

śamatha and vipaśyanā”. Only by coordinating

śamatha and vipaśyanā can the active function of Dhyāna arise, leading practitioners into the realm of Samādhi. For example, in Tiantai school practice, through methods such as counting breaths, the mind is first focused on the breath to achieve the state of

śamatha. Then, in Samādhi, one further observes the arising and cessation, impermanence, and other characteristics of the breath; this is the process of

vipaśyanā. Through such a dual practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā, practitioners can gradually deepen their Samādhi and elevate their practice realm.

V. Function of Samādhi

5.1 Eradicating Afflictions

Samādhi plays a crucial role in eradicating afflictions. In the state of Samādhi, the practitioner’s mind becomes extremely concentrated and sharp, able to clearly perceive the arising and operation mechanism of inner afflictions. By deeply observing the nature of afflictions, practitioners can realize that afflictions are false discriminations triggered by ignorance, greed, hatred, and delusion. As

Saṃyukta Āgama (《雜阿含經》) says: “If a bhikkhu’s mind is in Samādhi, they can truly know this noble truth of suffering, truly know this noble truth of the origin of suffering, truly know this noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and truly know this noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering”. In Samādhi, practitioners can use wisdom to counteract afflictions, no longer being driven by them, thereby gradually eradicating the roots of afflictions.

Samādhi can enable practitioners to break free from the shackles of greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance, and doubt. Greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance, and doubt are the roots of all afflictions and unwholesome karma. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can strengthen their inner Samādhi power, not be swayed by external temptations, thereby reducing the arising of greedy thoughts. At the same time, in Samādhi, practitioners can treat others with a calm and compassionate mind, dissolving feelings of hatred. Through insight into the true nature of all phenomena, practitioners can break ignorance and eliminate delusion. Samādhi is like a sharp sword that can cut through the bonds of afflictions, enabling practitioners to attain inner liberation and freedom.

5.2 Developing Wisdom

Samādhi is the foundation for developing wisdom. Buddhism believes that wisdom is not knowledge acquired from external sources, but rather a realization of the essence of things arising from inner experience and insight. In the state of Samādhi, the practitioner’s mind is like a calm lake, capable of clearly reflecting the true appearance of things. Through deep observation and contemplation of the object of focus, practitioners can gradually comprehend the truths of emptiness, impermanence, and non-self of all phenomena, thereby developing Prajñā wisdom.

As Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa (《大智度論》) says: “For example, a lamp, though it can illuminate, is useless in a strong wind; but if placed in a secret room, its function is complete. Wisdom in a scattered mind is also like this; if there is no Dhyāna-samādhi, that wisdom is useless”. Samādhi can make the practitioner’s thoughts clearer and deeper, eliminating distractions and interferences, thereby better comprehending the profound meaning of the Dharma. In Samādhi, practitioners can transcend the limitations of worldly cognition, view the world and life from a new perspective, and gain profound insight into the ultimate truth of the universe and human existence. This wisdom, induced by Samādhi, can help practitioners break free from confusion and achieve spiritual awakening and liberation.

5.3 Approaching Liberation

Samādhi is the indispensable path for practitioners to approach liberation. Liberation is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, meaning freedom from the shackles of cyclic existence and the attainment of eternal stillness and freedom. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can gradually purify their minds, eradicate afflictions, and develop wisdom, thereby step by step approaching the realm of liberation.

In the practice of transcendent Samādhis, such as the Three Samādhis and the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, practitioners can directly realize the true nature of all phenomena, transcend the illusions of cyclic existence, and achieve Nirvāṇa liberation. Samādhi can enable practitioners to maintain inner peace and firmness when facing various worldly sufferings and impermanence, without being swayed by external changes. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can cultivate a spiritual realm that transcends the mundane, ultimately achieving the crossing from this shore of birth and death to the other shore of Nirvāṇa, attaining ultimate liberation and freedom.

VI. Conclusion

Samādhi occupies a central position in the Buddhist practice system. It encompasses rich connotations and diverse classifications, and through specific practice methods, it can have a profound impact on practitioners. Samādhi can not only help practitioners eradicate afflictions and purify the mind, but also develop wisdom, achieve insight into the true nature of all phenomena, and ultimately approach the realm of liberation. Both worldly Samādhi and transcendent Samādhi provide practitioners with different levels of practice paths and spiritual.

References

Ancient Texts (ordered by dynasty and time):

[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 15.

[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Sūtra of the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 12.

[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Vol. 5, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 25.

[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Sutra on Samādhi in Sitting Meditation, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 15.

[Liu Song] Translated by Guṇabhadra: Saṃyukta Āgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 52.

[Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, Vol. 11, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 17, p. 655c.

[Tang] Translated by Paramiti: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Vol. 4, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 19.

[Tang] Composed by Yuanhui: Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya-kārikā-vṛtti, Vol. 28, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 41.

[Song] Translated by Jin Zongchi and others: Sutra on the Buddha’s Teaching on the Determination of the Dharma Vehicle, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 17.

[Song] Translated by Kālayaśas: Sutra of Contemplation on Amitābha Buddha, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 12.

[Song] Composed by Zhang Shangying: Dharmapāla-śāstra, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 52.

Jun 11, 2025 AD

Abstract 

Anger, as one of the Three Poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) in Buddhism, its roots lie in ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, and it is primarily characterized by instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions. This affliction not only causes immediate and long-term harm to an individual’s physical and mental well-being but also disrupts social harmony and personal merit, thereby constituting a fundamental obstacle to the practice of the Bodhisattva Path. This paper, based on Buddhist scriptures such as the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Cheng Weishi Lun, systematically analyzes the nature of anger, its generation mechanism, and the various harms it causes, with a particular focus on its obstruction to the initiation and practice of the Bodhisattva Path. Simultaneously, this paper proposes a comprehensive counteraction strategy centered on: dispelling illusory roots through the contemplation of wisdom; transforming anger into altruistic motivation through the cultivation of compassion; and subduing immediate reactions through mindfulness and adherence to precepts. Through an in-depth analysis of classical literature, combined with contemporary social phenomena and psychological theories, this paper demonstrates the specific process by which anger, from subtle emotions, escalates to trigger serious negative consequences, providing detailed theoretical foundations and practical guidance for Buddhist researchers and practitioners.

Keywords: Anger, Three Poisons, Bodhisattva Path, Self-Attachment, Emotional Counteraction

Table of contents

I. Introduction. 1

(I) Research Background and Significance. 1

(II) Research Questions and Methodology. 3

II. The Nature and Generation Mechanism of Anger 6

(I) Definition and Core Characteristics of Anger 6

(II)The Process of Anger Generation and Its Associated Afflictions (Upakleshas) 10

III. Analysis of the Harms of Anger 16

(I) Immediate and Long-Term Damage to Personal Well-being. 16

(II)Disruption of Social Harmony and Personal Merit 19

i. Case Study: Anger and Relationship Breakdown in Community Protests. 19

ii. Case Study: The Chain Reaction of Anger and Associated Afflictions in Daily Life. 22

iii. Obstacles to the Practice of the Bodhisattva Path. 24

IV. Theoretical and Practical Strategies for Overcoming Anger 26

(I) Wisdom Contemplation: Breaking the Illusory Roots of Anger 26

(II) Cultivation of Compassion: Transforming Anger into Altruistic Motivation. 29

(III) Mindfulness and Precepts: Subduing Immediate Angry Reactions. 32

V. Conclusion. 35

References. 38

I. Introduction

(I) Research Background and Significance

Anger (hereafter referred to as “anger”), as one of the Three Poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) in Buddhism, is not only regarded as a fundamental cause of sentient beings’ transmigration in samsara and suffering, but its instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions, stemming from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, also constitute a severe test for Buddhist practice. As clearly warned in Fascicle 49 of the Avatamsaka Sutra, “If Bodhisattvas give rise to anger towards other Bodhisattvas, they will create millions of obstacles.”[1] This admonition profoundly reveals that even a single thought of anger can sow countless hindrances on the Bodhisattva Path, potentially blocking the way to supreme enlightenment. Fascicle 7 of the Upasaka-sila Sutra also warns: “All afflictions are my great enemies.”[2] This elevates various afflictions, including anger, to the status of adversaries that harm body and mind and erode the foundation of practice.

In modern society, the destructive nature of anger is ubiquitous. From family disputes leading to separation over trivial matters, to workplace conflicts inciting retaliatory behavior, and even the keyboard violence spawned by anonymity in the internet age—all clearly demonstrate that the negative impact of anger has widely spread from the individual level to the entire social sphere. These phenomena not only severely undermine overall social harmony and stability but also highlight the practical significance of deeply researching and effectively addressing anger.

From an academic perspective, the “sense of aversion” and “desire for retaliation” inherent in anger bear certain commonalities with contemporary psychological theories of cognitive appraisal. According to Lazarus (1991) in Emotion and Adaptation, anger often arises from an individual’s cognitive appraisal of goal obstruction or threats to self-worth.[3] This view shares similarities with the Buddhist understanding that anger arises from attachment to external circumstances and resistance to one’s own desires. However, the Buddhist understanding goes further, viewing anger as a karmic impetus whose influence extends beyond the present psychological state to future karmic retribution. This transcends the immediate analytical framework of psychology, offering a more macroscopic and profound perspective.

This paper, primarily based on Buddhist scriptural texts and contemporary social events, profoundly analyzes the nature of anger, its arising mechanisms, and its various obstacles to the practice of the Bodhisattva Path. Simultaneously, it explores effective strategies for overcoming anger by examining classic cases such as Devadatta’s attempts to harm the Buddha, which reveal the karmic retribution resulting from anger.

This research not only provides clear theoretical guidance and practical methods for Buddhist practitioners but also hopes to offer wise insights for contemporary emotional management and mental health.

(II) Research Questions and Methodology

This paper is primarily guided by the core concept that anger originates from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, manifesting as instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions. This core concept emphasizes two key characteristics of anger: its roots lie in an individual’s deep-seated ignorance and attachment to the self, and its explosive rapidity and powerful destructive force on both inner and outer harmony. This destructive emotion, triggered by self-attachment, is a significant impediment to the path of Buddhist practice. Based on this core concept, this research primarily focuses on multiple facets of anger and proposes the following three core questions for in-depth exploration and resolution:

1. How can the nature of anger be precisely defined from both the “instantaneous” characteristic of psychological emotion and the “long-term” aspect of karmic retribution?
2. How do the “destructive” harms of anger widely affect an individual’s physiological and psychological health, social harmony and stability, and what kind of obstacles does it pose to the progress of the Bodhisattva Path?
3. How does Buddhism effectively overcome anger using methods of “wisdom contemplation” and “compassionate practice,” thereby thoroughly eradicating its root and ultimately returning to a state of pure practice?

To systematically answer the above core questions, this research employs a multi-dimensional methodology.

First, this research will conduct an in-depth literature analysis of classical texts. Drawing upon important Buddhist scriptures such as the Avatamsaka Sutra, Cheng Weishi Lun, Maharatnakuta Sutra, and Yogacarabhumi Sutra, it will systematically review relevant discussions on the essential characteristics, arising mechanisms, and theories of overcoming anger, accurately grasping the profound insights of Buddhist doctrine regarding anger to lay a solid doctrinal foundation for this research.

Second, this research will adopt a contemporary case study approach. By analyzing conflict incidents in real society and specific examples in individual lives, such as intensified community disputes or the specific manifestations of inner afflictions in practitioners, it will verify the concrete impact of anger at both the social and individual practice levels, and preliminarily explore strategies for addressing these negative impacts. In the case analyses, the development process of events, the psychological activities of participants, and the ultimate outcomes will be meticulously described, striving to extract universally significant insights from specific examples.

Furthermore, this research will introduce interdisciplinary comparative analysis. Specifically, it will reference modern psychological research findings, such as Lazarus’s “Emotional Cognitive Appraisal Theory” presented in Emotion and Adaptation,[4] to explore the similarities and differences between the Buddhist understanding of anger and modern psychological theories of emotion regulation. This will reveal the potential applied value of Buddhist wisdom in the contemporary field of emotional management. Through this interdisciplinary perspective, a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity of anger can be achieved, and broader ideas for its resolution can be provided.

The aforementioned research methods complement each other, collectively forming the systematic framework of this research. The classical analysis primarily addresses questions regarding the definition of anger’s nature and its theoretical basis, while the case studies reveal the concrete manifestations of anger in real life and its harms. Interdisciplinary comparative analysis helps to expand the theoretical perspective on strategies for overcoming anger and explore the contemporary significance of Buddhist wisdom. Through the integrated application of these methods, this research aims to provide more in-depth and comprehensive insights for Buddhist practitioners and relevant academic researchers.

II. The Nature and Generation Mechanism of Anger

(I) Definition and Core Characteristics of Anger

Buddhism clearly categorizes anger as one of the fundamental afflictions, its nature and generation mechanism deeply rooted in individual self-attachment. This paper defines anger as “an instantaneous and destructive emotional reaction stemming from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment.” This definition emphasizes two core aspects: first, the fundamental cause of anger lies in an individual’s erroneous perception of the self (ignorance) and excessive attachment to it, clinging to a false and illusory “self” as real and attempting to maintain it; second, the emotional outburst of anger is often rapid and sudden, possessing powerful destructiveness that not only severely harms one’s inner peace but also causes harm to others, disrupting both internal and external harmony.

Fascicle 6 of the Cheng Weishi Lun offers a more specific explanation of the nature of anger: “Its nature is aversion and hatred towards suffering and the causes of suffering. It obstructs non-anger, causes unrest, and serves as the basis for unwholesome actions.”[5] This passage reveals that anger is characterized by hatred and annoyance. When an individual encounters an unpleasant situation (suffering of suffering), anger arises. Anger not only causes inner pain and unease but, more importantly, it is a significant source of various unwholesome actions. When anger is strong, individuals often lose rationality and engage in behaviors that harm themselves and others, thereby creating negative karma.

Fascicle 1 of the Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Paths of Action further elaborates on the specific manifestations of anger: “What is anger? It means giving rise to resentment towards sentient beings, causing harm, striking, etc.”[6] This clearly indicates that anger is not merely an internal emotion of indignation but also manifests externally as actual harmful behaviors, such as verbal abuse or physical aggression.

Thus, the harmfulness of anger lies in its being triggered by deep-seated self-attachment. Once it arises, it erupts rapidly, not only disrupting an individual’s inner peace but also leading to behaviors that harm others, thereby initiating a cycle of negative karma.

Furthermore, anger possesses the following three core characteristics closely linked to self-attachment:

First, instantaneousness reflects the rapid nature of anger’s outburst. This emotion often generates immense power in an instant, capable of destroying long-accumulated good merits. Fascicle 24 of the Dafangdeng Daji Jing states, “If a Bodhisattva gives rise to a single thought of anger, all good dharmas are lost.”[7] Similarly, Fascicle 3 of the Mahayana Ritu Liupoluomiduo Jing  also records, “Consumed by the fire of anger, all wholesome karma is exhausted.”[8] Both scriptures emphasize the immense destructive power of a single thought of anger, likening it to a raging fire that can burn away the roots of goodness accumulated by practitioners over countless eons. This warns that even slight anger can cause irreversible loss to one’s practice.

Second, destructiveness, like a blazing fire, is entirely contrary to the compassion and wisdom advocated by Buddhism. Fascicle 1 of the Fo Shuo Ru Huan Sanmei Jing states, “Those who are full of anger, their wrath and hatred are raging, like a wildfire burning grass and trees, cities, and houses, none are left unharmed.”[9] This analogy clearly reveals the ferocity and widespread destructiveness of anger, like a rampant wildfire that not only destroys the external environment but also burns away the roots of goodness within practitioners. Even more so, Fascicle 30 of the Madhyama Agama records the destructive effect of anger on interpersonal relationships: “When a person has anger, habitually practices anger, is covered by anger, and their mind does not abandon anger, their relatives and friends will abandon and avoid them.”[10] This indicates that chronic anger not only erodes an individual’s mind and distorts their character but also severely disrupts harmonious relationships with others, causing friends and relatives to distance themselves out of fear and disgust. This highlights the destructive impact of anger on social relationships. This destructiveness is more profoundly reflected in its erosion of the mind, as stated in Fascicle 3 of the Pusa Benxing Jing: “Full of anger, without compassion.”[11] This shows that if the mind is filled with anger, the wholesome thought of compassion cannot arise and may even be completely driven out. Thus, the destructive power of anger extends from within, from the distortion of personal character to external behavior, ultimately affecting everything around it, fundamentally contradicting the path of compassion and wisdom emphasized by Buddhism.

Finally, karma generation is another important characteristic of anger, directly pointing to the Buddhist law of cause and effect. Fascicle 2 of the Dasazheni Qianzi Suoshuo Jing explicitly states, “The sin of anger also causes sentient beings to fall into hell, the animal realm, and the realm of hungry ghosts.”[12] This emphasizes that the negative karma created by anger will lead to painful retributions, even leading to descent into the three lower realms and enduring endless suffering.

The above analysis of the definition and core characteristics of anger lays the foundation for subsequent discussions on its harms and methods of overcoming it.

(II)The Process of Anger Generation and Its Associated Afflictions (Upakleshas)

The arising of anger is rooted in individual self-attachment, and it typically emerges from the combined effect of ignorance (lack of understanding of the true nature of phenomena) and intense craving (the pursuit of pleasant things). When an individual’s cravings are not satisfied, or when external circumstances go against their inner expectations, a destructive negative emotion, namely anger, is instantly triggered. Fascicle 78 of the Maharatnakuta Sutra precisely states: “If cherished things do not go as desired, then hatred arises.”[13] This indicates that attachment is an important prerequisite for the generation of hatred. When people are excessively attached to a person, object, or idea, if these objects of attachment are lost, anger is easily generated.

Fascicle 1 of the Dafangguang Yuanjue Xiuduoliao Yijing further elaborates on this: “Because of desirable objects, there arise agreement and disagreement. When objects go against the loving mind, hatred and jealousy arise, leading to various actions, and thus one is reborn in hell or as hungry ghosts.”[14] This passage reveals that the generation of anger is a process of psychological transformation: when external circumstances contradict an individual’s attachment, the original craving transforms into negative emotions such as hatred and jealousy, which then drive the individual to create various negative karmic actions. Fascicle 4 of the Shurangama Sutra also states from an epistemological perspective: “Different views form hatred, similar thoughts form love.”[15] This indicates that rejection and opposition to different viewpoints can also be an important cause of hatred. When an individual stubbornly believes that their own viewpoint is the only correct one and rejects or even opposes views different from their own, hatred will arise. Thus, anger germinates from an individual’s ignorance and self-attachment, and the resulting craving and aversion. Once it encounters unsatisfactory circumstances or differing viewpoints, it rapidly evolves into an intense emotional reaction.

As a fundamental affliction, anger usually does not exist in isolation but expands its destructive power by triggering a series of associated afflictions (Upakleshas). These associated afflictions are like helpers and extensions of anger, transforming simple anger into a complex network of afflictions that further hinder the practitioner’s mental purity and the practice of the Bodhisattva Path. According to Fascicle 89 of the Yogacarabhumi Sutra, the following five associated afflictions are particularly closely related to anger:[16]

1. Indignation: Refers to the immediate surge of anger that arises from unsatisfactory circumstances. It is characterized by rapid eruption but relatively short duration. The Yogacarabhumi Sutra describes: “If the defilement of anger can cause the face to become grim and agitated, it is called indignation.”[17] From a psychological perspective, the mechanism of indignation may involve an individual’s rapid reaction to perceived threats (Lazarus, 1991).[18]Physiologically, indignation is often accompanied by physiological arousal such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and rapid breathing. Behaviorally, indignation typically manifests as verbal aggression, changes in facial expression, or impulsive physical actions. For example, a person shouting loudly at someone for being late, or even throwing things, is a typical manifestation of indignation.
2. Resentment: Refers to long-accumulated resentment and dissatisfaction harbored within the mind. It is characterized by being deeply ingrained and difficult to dispel. The Yogacarabhumi Sutra describes: “Harboring inner grievances, therefore called resentment.”[19] This indicates that if initial indignation is not resolved in a timely manner, it can take root in the mind and gradually transform into long-term resentment. Its psychological mechanism may be related to memory rumination (recurrently thinking about and recalling). Individuals constantly recall and reinforce experiences that cause them dissatisfaction, thereby deepening their resentment.[20] For example, a person may harbor resentment for decades due to unfair treatment experienced in childhood. This long-term resentment not only affects their physical and mental health but also hinders their normal interactions with others.
3. Annoyance: Refers to the inner agitation and restlessness caused by anger. It is characterized by the loss of inner peace and tranquility. Fascicle 2 of the Zabhipidamo Xin Lun describes: “When unpleasant things gather, or desired things are lost, and the mind is heated by thinking, it is called annoyance.”[21] When an individual encounters people or things they dislike, or when desired things cannot be obtained, inner agitation and annoyance arise, making it difficult to find peace. For example, a person may be unable to calm down after a heated argument with someone. Even after the event has passed, their mind remains anxious and restless, unable to sleep—this is a concrete manifestation of annoyance.
4. Jealousy: Refers to dissatisfaction and envy towards the advantages or achievements possessed by others. Fascicle 92 of the Maharatnakuta Sutra states: “One should observe gain, as it can give rise to feelings of superiority, inferiority, and jealousy.”[22] Its psychological mechanism may be related to social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). Individuals compare their own situation with others, and when they find others superior to themselves, they may develop jealousy.[23] For example, in a tech company, an employee might feel dissatisfied when a colleague receives an important project award, and even secretly obstruct the colleague’s work. This jealousy can severely impact team cooperation and individual career development.
5. Harm: Refers to the intention and behavior of wishing to harm others and cause them suffering. Fascicle 3 of the Abhidharma Pinlei Zu Lun defines harm as: “What is harm? It means being able to cause destruction, injury, and annoyance to sentient beings.”[24] Harm is a further development of anger. When anger and dissatisfaction accumulate to a certain degree, they can transform into actual harmful behaviors. For example, Xiao Ming harbors anger towards Xiao Hong, and images of Xiao Hong being unkind to him often appear in his mind. This anger eventually transforms into the intention of “harm”: Xiao Ming widely spreads negative rumors about Xiao Hong, intending to damage her reputation and make her suffer.

The generation and development of these associated afflictions present a vicious cycle. Initial indignation may only be a momentary emotional outburst, but if not promptly recognized and resolved, it can accumulate in the mind and become long-term resentment. This resentment can further lead to inner agitation and uneasiness (annoyance). When seeing others achieve success or happiness, jealousy may arise (jealousy), and intense anger and jealousy can ultimately drive the individual to engage in harmful behaviors (harm). Anger, as the core driving force of this network of afflictions, continuously nourishes and strengthens these associated afflictions, making it difficult for practitioners to maintain mental purity and severely disrupting the harmony of interpersonal relationships, ultimately hindering the compassion and wisdom pursued by the Bodhisattva path. Therefore, a deep understanding of the generation process of anger and the associated afflictions it triggers is of crucial importance for effectively overcoming anger.

III. Analysis of the Harms of Anger

(I) Immediate and Long-Term Damage to Personal Well-being

Anger poses significant and far-reaching harm to an individual’s physical and mental well-being, which can be analyzed from both immediate and long-term perspectives. Both levels of harm negatively affect the practitioner’s physical and mental state, thereby impeding their path of practice.

From an immediate perspective, when anger arises, the most direct impact is physical and mental imbalance, disrupting inner and outer harmony. Fascicle 7 of the Upasaka-sila Sutra describes: “Due to anger, one’s appearance and voice become coarse and evil, and one’s deportment becomes abrupt and violent.”[25] This scripture indicates that intense anger directly affects an individual’s facial appearance, making it ugly or even ferocious (coarse appearance), their speech becomes rude and violent (coarse voice), and their conduct loses composure and serenity, becoming agitated and rough (abrupt and violent deportment). Simultaneously, anger is accompanied by inner agitation and distress. Fascicle 8 of the Shurangama Sutra further depicts this inner feeling: “The habits of anger clash and erupt into conflict; the conflict and entanglement do not cease, the mind becomes hot and erupts with fire, casting qi into gold.”[26] This vividly reveals that anger burns like an inner fire, causing the individual to be restless, anxious, and unable to maintain peace.

Modern scientific research also confirms this. Sapolsky’s (2004) research indicates that outbursts of anger trigger the release of stress hormones, such as cortisol, leading to physiological reactions like increased blood pressure and heart rate, which disrupt the body’s physiological balance in the short term.[27] For instance, in a workplace dispute, an employee who became enraged on the spot after being severely criticized by their supervisor subsequently felt chest tightness, shortness of breath, and dizziness. This vividly demonstrates the immediate harm of anger.

If this state of physical and mental imbalance caused by anger is not promptly suppressed and adjusted, it will gradually accumulate, leading to more profound and long-term negative consequences for the individual. Anger not only causes an individual to disturb others, but more importantly, the recoil of this negative emotion also affects oneself. Prolonged exposure to anger and stress can lead to various illnesses and even shorten one’s lifespan.

Modern scientific research indicates that chronic anger continuously activates the sympathetic nervous system, weakening the body’s immune system function and increasing the risk of developing various chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (e.g., hypertension, coronary heart disease), digestive system diseases, and insomnia. For example, relevant research by Gan et al. (2011) shows that individuals in long-term high-stress environments experience sustained psychological stress responses that lead to chronic inflammatory responses and increased cardiovascular system load, thereby significantly increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.[28] This case, from a modern medical perspective, strongly confirms the chain reaction of the negative emotion of anger, from immediate distress to long-term physical and mental exhaustion.

(II)Disruption of Social Harmony and Personal Merit

Anger not only harms the individual but also severely disrupts overall social harmony and personal merit. Its impact is evident not only in immediate interpersonal conflicts and breakdowns but also extends to long-term karmic retribution, fully demonstrating its destructive nature. The following two contemporary social case analyses, adapted from real events, will specifically illustrate how anger, stemming from an individual’s self-attachment, gradually spreads and evolves into a widely harmful factor for society, thereby verifying its powerful destructiveness.

i. Case Study: Anger and Relationship Breakdown in Community Protests

Let’s imagine in a certain urban community, a resident named Zhang Xiao (hereafter referred to as A) developed strong dissatisfaction and anger towards Li Hua (hereafter referred to as B), a government official responsible for a project to build a waste treatment plant near A’s residential area. A believed that this decision severely threatened his quality of life and physical health, infringing upon his cherished “stability” and “health” self-interests. Research by Ekman (1992) shows that perceived unfair treatment often triggers strong hostile emotions.[29] A’s anger might initially manifest as personal complaints and dissatisfaction, but soon, this “desire for retaliation,” fueled by a “sense of aversion,” drove him to take more drastic action. He began to fiercely accuse official B through community forums and public gatherings, claiming that B ignored residents’ demands and even spreading false rumors in an attempt to mobilize more residents to join the opposition.

This negative emotion rapidly spread throughout the community: A’s neighbors, influenced by his emotions, successively joined the protests and began to verbally attack and accuse residents who expressed support for the government project. This highly aligns with the emotional contagion theory proposed by Hatfield et al. (1993), which states that group emotions can rapidly spread and influence individual behavior.[30] As time progressed, the opposition between the two factions—those supporting and those opposing the project—intensified, and the protests gradually escalated into street conflicts. The previously harmonious neighborly relationships were severely damaged. Sunstein’s (2017) research points out that in relatively closed communities, the group polarization effect magnifies disagreements among members, leading to the collapse of mutual trust.[31] Due to continuous conflicts, public facilities in the community were damaged, and some businesses were forced to close due to safety concerns, leading to economic losses for the local area. This clearly highlights the powerful destructiveness of individual and group anger on social stability and economic development.

From a Buddhist perspective of cause and effect, A’s aggressive words and actions not only disrupted immediate harmony but also diminished his personal merit. His negative karma, created by anger, led to his gradual isolation from neighbors who supported the government project in his community, and his previously good interpersonal relationships subsequently broke down. This embodies the Buddhist concept of “diminished merit,” meaning that negative thoughts and actions reduce an individual’s good affinities, causing them to encounter obstacles in interpersonal interactions and life’s smooth progress. This case vividly demonstrates how anger, starting from an individual’s initial dissatisfaction arising from self-attachment, rapidly spread to the entire community through emotional contagion and group polarization, leading to conflict and division. Its destructiveness is reflected not only in the economic and interpersonal losses at the time but also extends to long-term community harmony and individual merit.

ii. Case Study: The Chain Reaction of Anger and Associated Afflictions in Daily Life

A practitioner named Li, who had been a monk for ten years, was known for his diligent practice when he first entered the monastery, but he had long been troubled by a habit of inner anger. During a communal practice session, a fellow practitioner, Xiao Zhang, due to a momentary oversight, failed to ring the assembly bell on time. Upon seeing this, Li immediately became enraged and sternly rebuked Xiao Zhang: “How can you practice if you are so sloppy?” (This is indignation).

Afterward, instead of reflecting on and repenting for his anger, Li regarded Xiao Zhang’s oversight as a typical manifestation of his laziness. From then on, whenever Li saw Xiao Zhang, a feeling of dissatisfaction and aversion would well up in his heart (This is the growth of resentment). In a subsequent Dharma assembly, Xiao Zhang was publicly praised by the master for his progress in practice. Upon hearing this, Li felt no joy for Xiao Zhang; instead, he secretly pondered: “What virtue or ability does this person possess to receive the master’s praise?” (This is the arising of jealousy). Not only that, but Li also privately complained to other fellow practitioners about Xiao Zhang’s hypocrisy and pretense (This is the verbal act of harm). Under the influence of this series of negative emotions and behaviors, Li’s mind became increasingly agitated and restless, making it difficult for him to calmly focus on practice (This is the manifestation of annoyance).

In this case, Li’s anger was not accidental; it was the result of the interaction between past karmic habits and present afflictions. Suppose Li, in a past life, had caused harm with harsh words during a dispute. These negative karmic seeds lay dormant in his Alaya-vijnana (storehouse consciousness). When he faced Xiao Zhang’s “improper” behavior, and based on his attachment to the perfectness of his “self” practice (ignorance and self-attachment), these dormant karmic seeds were triggered, leading to the present thought of anger. The present thought of anger, in turn, created new negative karma, reinforcing his inner habit of anger, thus forming a vicious cycle. From the initial angry rebuke to subsequent resentment, dissatisfaction, jealousy, slander, and finally inner agitation and restlessness, this series of interwoven associated afflictions constituted an affliction obstacle to practice, severely hindering Li’s concentration and purity in practice. His actions of harsh speech and jealousy also sowed negative causes, affecting his future karmic retribution. This case profoundly reveals that anger not only harms the practitioner’s own progress but also undermines the harmony of the monastic community.

From the two cases above, it can be seen that anger, starting from the “sense of aversion” and “desire for retaliation” arising from individual self-attachment, rapidly spreads to surrounding social relationships, disrupting harmony between people, and through the mechanism of karma, continuously depletes an individual’s merit and roots of goodness, causing profound destructive effects on individuals and groups, thereby becoming a fundamental obstacle to the practice of the Bodhisattva Path.

iii. Obstacles to the Practice of the Bodhisattva Path

For practitioners who have vowed to liberate all sentient beings and attain unsurpassed Bodhi, anger constitutes an immense obstacle to practice. The self-attachment and destructive nature of anger directly erode the most fundamental aspiration of the Bodhisattva Path—vast compassion and the vow to benefit sentient beings. When the mind is occupied by anger, practitioners find it difficult to generate genuine compassion and care for sentient beings, and it becomes even more impossible for them to take action to help them escape suffering.

The Avatamsaka Sutra clearly warns about this: if Bodhisattvas give rise to anger towards other Bodhisattvas, they will create millions of obstacles. This not only hinders the progress of Bodhisattva practice but also sows numerous causes of hindrances on the path of practice. These obstacles specifically include the obstacle of being far from the Bodhi of the Buddhas, which causes practitioners to be alienated from the enlightenment of the Buddhas, making it difficult to receive the blessings and guidance of the Buddhas; the obstacle of delighting in the Lesser Vehicle, which causes the Bodhisattva mind, originally cultivated for the Great Vehicle, to recede, turning instead to the pursuit of personal liberation in the Lesser Vehicle; and the obstacle of not generating the mind of omniscience, which causes practitioners to lose the desire for vast wisdom that penetrates the essence of all phenomena and the grand aspiration to broadly benefit sentient beings.[32] Thus, anger fundamentally shakes the foundation of Bodhisattva practice, making it difficult to maintain the mind of altruism and the vast pursuit of wisdom.

The destructive impact of anger on Bodhisattva practice is particularly evident in the case of Devadatta (Tiandaba) in Fascicle 1 of the Fo Shuo Si Nili Jing. The sutra records: “The foolish Devadatta wished to harm the Tathagata, killed an Arhat nun, and disrupted the community of monks. His body disintegrated, and upon death, he entered the three evil paths, being reborn in the Avici Hell, where, due to this cause and condition, the monk Devadatta entered the great hell, with flames forty cubits long erupting from his body.”[33] This passage reveals that Devadatta, due to his jealousy and anger towards the Buddha, committed extremely serious transgressions: attempting to murder the Buddha, killing a nun who had attained Arhatship, and disrupting the harmony of the monastic community. His intense anger was the evil consequence of extreme self-attachment, which not only completely destroyed his own foundation of practice but also, due to the pulling force of his evil karma, led him to fall into the Avici Hell after death, enduring the extreme suffering of flames erupting from his body. This case, with its tragic consequences, warns practitioners that anger is one of the most terrifying enemies on the Bodhisattva Path. Its negative influence is not limited to the present life but extends into future karmic retribution, severely hindering the great undertaking of Bodhisattvas to liberate sentient beings and attain Buddhahood. Therefore, for practitioners committed to the Bodhisattva Path, subduing and eradicating the affliction of anger is a crucial task.

IV. Theoretical and Practical Strategies for Overcoming Anger

(I) Wisdom Contemplation: Breaking the Illusory Roots of Anger

Wisdom contemplation is a crucial method for fundamentally eradicating anger, directly addressing its core characteristic of “an instantaneous and destructive emotional reaction stemming from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment.” By deeply insightfully understanding the illusory and unreal roots of anger and applying wisdom to contemplate the true nature of phenomena, the anger arising from erroneous cognition can be effectively resolved, opening a path of purity for the practice of the Bodhisattva Path.

Fascicle 11 of the Fo Benxing Ji Jing states: “Phenomena arising from causes and conditions, once arisen, are already extinct.”[34] This sentence reveals that all phenomena perceived by an individual, including people, things, and events that cause joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness, are products of the aggregation of causes and conditions. They are essentially illusory, unreal, and arise and cease in an instant. They have no eternal substance; they arise in the present moment and are already ceasing. Similarly, the objects of an individual’s anger, and the events that trigger anger, are also products of the aggregation of causes and conditions, without eternal substance, and therefore not worth clinging to. This wisdom contemplation of dependent origination and emptiness aims to break the attachment to illusory appearances, thereby radically cutting off the root of hatred—self-clinging.

In specific practice, one can gradually dismantle the destructive power of anger by wisely contemplating its impermanence. For example, a Buddhist practitioner in the workplace experiences intense anger due to sharp criticism from a colleague. When anger first arises, they feel their heart rate accelerate and even want to immediately retort and retaliate. At this moment, they apply the method of contemplating impermanence, reflecting that the colleague’s criticism is merely verbal sounds that dissipate as soon as they are uttered, without any eternal substance. At the same time, they also contemplate that their own inner anger is also an impermanent emotion that arises and ceases with the change of causes and conditions, and there is no “self” that is truly being hurt and can be clung to. Through such contemplation, they gradually let go of their attachment to the criticism and their attachment to the “injured self,” and their mind quickly returns to peace. This process first observes the impermanence of critical words, recognizing that they cease as they arise; then further breaks through the attachment to the “self,” recognizing that there is no real “self” that can be permanently harmed by the words of others, ultimately restoring inner purity. This confirms what is stated in Fascicle 2 of the Chanfa Yaojie: “Wisdom can uproot all afflictions.”[35] When an individual truly understands the illusory nature of anger, they will no longer be bound and controlled by it, but can face the people and events that trigger anger with a peaceful mind.

Thus, using wisdom contemplation to break the illusory roots of anger can not only resolve its instantaneous destructive power but also help practitioners transcend self-attachment, thereby better returning to the compassion and wisdom pursued by Bodhisattva practitioners. This wisdom contemplation lays an important theoretical foundation for subsequent practical strategies.

(II) Cultivation of Compassion: Transforming Anger into Altruistic Motivation

Cultivation of compassion is a crucial strategy for transforming inner anger into altruistic motivation. It directly targets the core of anger—”self-attachment”—by consciously cultivating and increasing compassion, which can effectively resolve the anger triggered by self-centeredness and thus achieve the vast Bodhisattva Path. As Fascicle 1 of the Fayuan Zhulin states: “When compassion arises, there is no intention to harm.”[36] This sentence concisely indicates the opposition between compassion and hatred. And Fascicle 324 of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra also states: “If Bodhisattvas-mahāsattvas wish to attain Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi… they should give rise to great compassion towards all sentient beings, and should not give rise to anger; they should speak with great compassion to all sentient beings, and should not speak with anger; they should give rise to great sympathetic joy towards all sentient beings, and should not give rise to harmful thoughts towards them; they should speak with great sympathetic joy to all sentient beings, and should not speak with harmful thoughts.”[37] These scriptures all clearly state that cultivating vast compassion not only pacifies one’s own hatred but is also the essential path to initiating and attaining supreme enlightenment.

In specific practice, the cultivation of compassion can transform inner anger through the following three steps:

First, stabilize the mind. When anger arises, the first thing to do is not to react immediately, but to gradually calm the restless mind by chanting the names of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.[38] This step aims to cut off the “instantaneous explosive” impulse of anger, creating conditions for subsequent contemplation.

Second, contemplate the suffering of sentient beings. After the mind is stabilized, shift attention from one’s own dissatisfaction and grievances to observing the pain and misfortune of others. This step requires practitioners to empathetically feel the difficulties of others, giving rise to empathy and pity. This is cultivating sympathetic joy, expanding the focus from the narrow “self” to all sentient beings, directly dissolving the root of self-attachment.

Third, make a vow to help them achieve liberation with compassion. After feeling the suffering of others, further make a vow to use wisdom and compassion to help them escape from afflictions and suffering. This is a concrete manifestation of the further sublimation of compassion.

For example, a practitioner becomes intensely angry because a neighbor frequently makes noise, disturbing their sleep, and even contemplates retaliation. At this moment, they do not immediately take action but first calm down and sincerely chant the holy name of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, “Namo Great Compassionate Avalokiteshvara.” Gradually, their inner anger begins to subside, and their mind gradually calms, effectively stopping the immediate outburst of anger. Then, they begin to contemplate that the neighbor might also be unintentionally making noise due to excessive life pressure, and perhaps they also have their own troubles and sufferings. Finally, they vow to understand and tolerate the neighbor with a compassionate heart, and even find appropriate ways to help them solve their difficulties, rather than aggravating the conflict with anger and confrontation. Through such practice, the anger that originally arose from self-attachment gradually transforms into an altruistic motivation, and the practitioner’s mind also returns to peace and tranquility.

This example shows how stabilizing the mind to break the instantaneous impulse of anger, further contemplating the suffering of others to resolve self-centered attachment, and finally making an altruistic vow to sublimate inner motivation can effectively transform anger into the power of Bodhisattva practice. Thus, the cultivation of compassion transforms the destructiveness of anger with an altruistic mind. It can not only restore inner peace and tranquility but also help practitioners actively practice the compassion and wisdom of the Bodhisattva Path.

(III) Mindfulness and Precepts: Subduing Immediate Angry Reactions

Mindfulness and Precepts are two effective methods for subduing the immediate reactions of anger, directly addressing the “instantaneous destructive” characteristic of anger. Mindfulness, through the truthful awareness of one’s current physical and mental state, helps practitioners recognize the presence of anger the moment it arises, thereby preventing them from being swept away by emotion and acting irrationally. Precepts, on the other hand, through adherence to certain moral norms and codes of conduct, restrain an individual’s words and actions, preventing them from harming themselves and others under the sway of anger, thereby breaking the cycle of negative karma. Mindfulness is the wisdom of awareness, and precepts are the rules of conduct; the two complement each other, jointly promoting the pure practice of the Bodhisattva Path.

The Anguttara Nikaya emphasizes: “I shall abide contemplating the body in the body, ardent, mindful, and clearly comprehending, having subdued covetousness and sorrow in the world.”[39] Here, “sorrow” refers to negative emotions such as anger. The sutra teaches practitioners to maintain present moment awareness of their body and mind (mindfulness) and to understand the current state with clear wisdom, thereby subduing inner desires and distress, including anger and other afflictions. This provides a theoretical basis for immediate intervention when anger first arises. At the same time, Fascicle 1 of the Jie Chuxin Xuerenwen warns practitioners regarding precepts: “Those who are beginners… should only treat others with a compassionate mind, and not harm others with harsh words.”[40] This clearly indicates that when facing others or one’s own emotions, one should maintain a compassionate mind and not harm others with harsh words or actions, thereby establishing clear norms for behavior.

In specific practice, when anger arises, practitioners can first use mindfulness to observe bodily sensations (e.g., muscle tension, increased heart rate) and inner thoughts, thereby stabilizing emotions and avoiding impulsive reactions. This step creates space to halt the “instantaneous outburst” of anger. Simultaneously, one should remind oneself to uphold the precepts of non-anger and non-harm, restraining one’s speech and actions, and not allowing the fire of anger to spread further.

For example, a lay Buddhist practitioner feels anger rising because a family member did not prepare dinner on time, and thoughts of harshly blaming them arise. At this moment, they immediately apply mindfulness, becoming aware of their emotional changes, the tension in their body, and the harsh words about to escape their lips. They realize that anger is an impermanent, illusory feeling that will dissipate. Then, they recall the precept of “treating others with a compassionate mind, not harming with harsh words,” immediately restraining their speech and actions, ultimately avoiding a family dispute. This example demonstrates how to use mindfulness to timely cut off the impulse of anger and how to use the principles of precepts to protect a compassionate mind, thereby quickly restoring inner peace.

Furthermore, Kabat-Zinn’s (1990) research also confirms that mindfulness practice can reduce an individual’s emotional reactions and enhance self-regulation ability, allowing individuals to observe inner experiences more objectively rather than being consumed by them.[41] This aligns with the Buddhist method of using mindfulness to quell afflictions such as anger.

Thus, mindfulness and precepts work synergistically to effectively subdue the immediate reactions of anger. They can not only quell immediate conflicts and disputes but also help practitioners advance in the pure practice of the Bodhisattva Path in daily life, providing a solid behavioral foundation for achieving ultimate compassion and wisdom.

V. Conclusion

This paper has deeply analyzed the core concept from Buddhist scriptures that anger originates from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, manifesting as instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions. The research reveals that the harms of anger are widespread and profound, not only severely affecting an individual’s physical and mental health but also disrupting overall social harmony and posing a fundamental obstacle to the initiation and practice of the Bodhisattva Path. Its roots lie in the ignorance and self-attachment of sentient beings and its destructive power is amplified by associated afflictions such as indignation, resentment, annoyance, jealousy, and harm. If not effectively addressed, anger will hinder the growth of compassion and wisdom, severely impeding an individual’s ultimate liberation.

Buddhism offers a comprehensive system for overcoming anger, centered on wisdom, compassion, mindfulness, and precepts. First, wisdom contemplation, by insightfully understanding the dependent origination and empty, illusory nature of all phenomena, fundamentally eradicates the roots of anger arising from self-clinging. Second, the cultivation of compassion, with its vast altruistic intention, transforms the destructiveness of anger into a powerful force for benefiting sentient beings. Finally, mindfulness and precepts, through the truthful awareness of one’s current physical and mental state and adherence to codes of conduct, effectively subdue the immediate impulses of anger. These three strategies are interdependent and form an organic whole: wisdom lays the fundamental theoretical basis for overcoming anger, compassion elevates practice to active Bodhisattva conduct, and mindfulness and precepts safeguard the practitioner’s physical and mental purity in daily life. This comprehensive system for overcoming anger can not only effectively pacify inner anger but also ultimately help practitioners return to the altruistic Bodhisattva Path and achieve vast enlightenment.

It is hoped that future research can further deepen the exploration of the affliction of anger, investigating how to more precisely apply the aforementioned strategies for overcoming anger at different stages of practice to achieve optimal results. Simultaneously, one could attempt to combine contemporary psychological empirical research to verify the effectiveness of Buddhist methods for overcoming anger using modern scientific approaches, thereby providing new perspectives with greater persuasiveness and practical significance for the practice of the Bodhisattva Path and contemporary emotional management.

References  

Ancient Texts (Ordered chronologically by dynasty)

1. [Western Jin] Translated by Zhu Fahu: Fo Shuo Ru Huan Sanmei Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 12.
2. [Eastern Jin] Translated by Sanghabhadra: Madhyama Agama, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 01.
3. [Eastern Jin] Translated by Dharmaraksa: Fo Shuo Si Nili Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 02.
4. [Yao Qin] Translated by Kumarajiva: Chanfa Yaojie, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 15.
5. [Yao Qin] Translated by Kumarajiva: Miaofa Lianhua Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 09.
6. [Northern Liang] Translated by Dharmaraksa: Upasaka-sila Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 24.
7. [Northern Liang] Translated by Dharmaraksa: Dafangdeng Daji Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 13.
8. [Sui] Translated by Jñanagupta: Fo Benxing Ji Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 03.
9. [Tang] Translated by Siksananda: Avatamsaka Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol.
10. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Cheng Weishi Lun, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 31.
11. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Yogacarabhumi Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 30.

12. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Abhidharma Pinlei Zu Lun, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 26.
13. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 06.
14. [Tang] Translated by Prajna: Mahayana Ritu Liupoluomiduo Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 08.
15. [Tang] Translated by Bodhiruci: Dasazheni Qianzi Suoshuo Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 09.
16. [Tang] Translated by Bodhiruci: Maharatnakuta Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 11.
17. [Tang] Translated by Buddhatrāta: Dafangguang Yuanjue Xiuduoliao Yijing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 17.
18. [Tang] Translated by Pāramitī: Shurangama Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19.
19. [Tang] Compiled by Dao Shi: Fayuan Zhulin, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 53.
20. [Song] Translated by Ri Cheng et al.: Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Paths of Action further, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 17.
21. [Song] Translated by Samghavarman et al.: Zabhipidamo Xin Lun, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 28.
22. [Goryeo] Compiled by Jinul: Jie Chuxin Xuerenwen, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 48.
23. Translated by Guo Zhezhang: Anguttara Nikaya, Pali Tripitaka Vol. 23.
24. Translator unknown: Pusa Benxing Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 03.

Others

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3. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.
4. Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers: A guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping. Henry Holt and Company.
5. Gan, W. Q., Davies, H. W., & Demers, P. A. (2011). Occupational noise exposure and cardiovascular disease in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68(3), 183-190.
6. Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169-200.
7. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(3), 96-99.
8. Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.
9. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. Delacorte Press.

[1] Siksananda (transl.): Avatamsaka Sutra, Fascicle 49: “If Bodhisattvas give rise to anger towards other Bodhisattvas, they will create millions of obstacles. What are these millions of obstacles? Namely: the obstacle of not seeing Bodhi… the obstacle of severing the Bodhisattva realm; the obstacle of retreating from courageous Dharma in Bodhisattvas; the obstacle of laziness in the Bodhisattva’s path of liberation; the obstacle of halting the wisdom-light gate in Bodhisattvas; the obstacle of weakening the power of mindfulness in Bodhisattvas; the obstacle of inability to uphold the Tathagata’s teachings; the obstacle of inability to draw near the Bodhisattva’s path of freedom from birth; the obstacle of inability to cultivate the Bodhisattva’s indestructible path; the obstacle of following the proper position of the Two Vehicles; the obstacle of being far from the lineage of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas of the three times.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 10, pp. 257c-258b.

[2] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Upasaka-sila Sutra, Fascicle 7, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 24, p. 1074c.

[3] Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press.

[4] Same note 3.

[5] Xuanzang (transl.): Cheng Weishi Lun, Fascicle 6, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 31, p. 31b.

[6] Ri Cheng et al. (transl.): Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Paths of Action further, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 17, p. 458a.

[7] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Dafangdeng Daji Jing, Fascicle 24, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 13, p. 170a.

[8] Prajna (transl.): Mahayana Ritu Liupoluomiduo Jing, Fascicle 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 08, p. 877c.

[9] Zhu Fahu (transl.): Fo Shuo Ru Huan Sanmei Jing, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 12, p. 143a.  

[10] Sanghabhadra (transl.): Madhyama Agama, Fascicle 30, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 01, p. 617c.

[11] Translator unknown: Pusa Benxing Jing, Fascicle 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 03, p. 123a.

[12] Bodhiruci (transl.): Dasazheni Qianzi Suoshuo Jing, Fascicle 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 09, p. 328c.

[13] Bodhiruci (transl.): Maharatnakuta Sutra, Fascicle 78, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 11, p. 444a.

[14] Buddhatrāta (transl.): Dafangguang Yuanjue Xiuduoliao Yijing, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 17, p. 916b.

[15] Pāramitī (transl.): Shurangama Sutra, Fascicle 4, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 120a.

[16] Xuanzang (transl.): Yogacarabhumi Sutra, Fascicle 89: “If the defilement of anger can cause the face to become grim and agitated, it is called indignation. Harboring inner grievances, therefore called resentment. Concealing many evils, therefore called concealment. Afflicted and alarmed, therefore called burning distress. Harboring defilement in the mind, not delighting in others’ glory, therefore called jealousy. Harboring deep meanness towards the means of livelihood, therefore called stinginess.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 30, p. 802b.

[17] Same note 16.

[18] Same note 3.

[19] Same note16.

[20] Rusting, C. L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Ruminating on acute anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

[21] Samghavarman et al. (transl.): Zabhipidamo Xin Lun, Fascicle 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 28, p. 881c.

[22] Bodhiruci (transl.): Maharatnakuta Sutra, Fascicle 92, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 11, p. 523c.

[23] Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.

[24] Xuanzang (transl.): Abhidharma Pinlei Zu Lun, Fascicle 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 26, p. 700b.

[25] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Upasaka-sila Sutra, Fascicle 7, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 24, p. 1071a.

[26] Pāramitī (transl.): Shurangama Sutra, Fascicle 8, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 143c.

[27] Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers: A guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping. Henry Holt and Company.

[28] Gan, W. Q., Davies, H. W., & Demers, P. A. (2011). Occupational noise exposure and cardiovascular disease in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68(3), 183-190.

[29] Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169-200.

[30] Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(3), 96-99.

[31] Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.

[32] Same note 1.

[33] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Fo Shuo Si Nili Jing, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 02, p. 861c.

[34] Jñanagupta (transl.): Fo Benxing Ji Jing, Fascicle 11, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 03, p. 703b.

[35] Kumarajiva (transl.): Chanfa Yaojie, Fascicle 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 15, p. 294c.

[36] Dao Shi (compiled): Fayuan Zhulin, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 53, p. 271a.

[37] Xuanzang (transl.): Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, Fascicle 324, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 06, p. 657a.

[38] Kumarajiva (transl.): Miaofa Lianhua Jing, Fascicle 7: “If one has much anger, constantly thinking of and respectfully invoking Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, one will be freed from anger.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 09, p. 57a.

[39] Guo Zhezhang (transl.): Anguttara Nikaya, Pali Tripitaka, Vol. 23, p. 205a.

[40] Jinul (compiled): Jie Chuxin Xuerenwen, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 48, p. 1004b.

[41] Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. Delacorte Press.

—–š›&š›—–

(Issue 21)

On Precepts: With the Wisdom of Recognizing Delusions and Afflictions as a Premise

Instructor: Shi Ziju

Author: Shi Fafu

May 5, 2025

Abstract 

Buddhist precepts are the cornerstone of practice, aiming to purify body and mind, cease evil deeds, cultivate good deeds, and lead to liberation. The core argument of this study is that taking the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction as a prerequisite is key to upholding Buddhist precepts. Its function lies in fundamentally enhancing the self-awareness and effectiveness of precept practice, thereby leading to ultimate liberation. Delusion and affliction, as the core internal obstacles of an individual, are essentially false cognitions arising from unreal phenomena. They are generated through complex mechanisms involving the evocation of “past dust” (previous experiences), the fusion of present emotions with latent afflictions, and subjective “fabrication.” These pose a serious threat to practice and precept-keeping, disturbing body and mind, eroding meritorious deeds, and leading to violations and suffering. This paper delves into the aspects of wise contemplation of the illusory nature of delusion, discerning the root and harm of affliction, establishing right view, and sublimating altruistic aspiration, thereby solidifying the foundation for upholding precepts. Precept-keeping guided by the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction transcends external “cessation of evil,” reaching the internal “non-desire for evil”; it shifts from “passive defense” to “active purification”; and it enables the skillful application of precepts in complex situations, promoting a virtuous cycle between meditation and precept-keeping, thus deepening the practice of precepts.

This study employs textual analysis to explore Buddhist scriptures’ discourses on delusion, affliction, and wise conduct, and combines literary works and business cases to verify the adverse consequences of clinging to delusion and affliction and the beneficial outcomes of wise altruism through comparative analysis. This further corroborates that the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction can better facilitate the upholding of Buddhist precepts, leading to peace and liberation. It is hoped that this paper can provide a theoretical basis and practical insights for modern Buddhist practice.

Keywords: Wisdom, Precepts, Delusion, Affliction, Liberation, Bodhisattva Practice,  Right View

Table of contents

I. Introduction. 1

II. Definition, Generation, and Harm of Delusion and Affliction. 3

(I)Definition and Generation of Delusion and Affliction. 4

1. Definition of Delusion and Affliction. 4

2. Generative Mechanisms of Delusion and Affliction. 5

(II) Multi-layered Harm of Delusion and Affliction. 8

1. Disturbing Bodily and Mental Harmony, Harming Health. 9

2. Eroding Meritorious Deeds, Leading to Precept Violations. 10

3. Heretical Views Deviating from the Right Path. 11

III. Taking the Wisdom of Recognizing Delusion and Affliction as the Basis for Upholding Precepts. 14

(I) Wise Contemplation of the Illusory Nature of Delusion. 15

(II) Wise Discerning of the Root and Harm of Affliction. 17

(III) Establishing the Motivation for Upholding Precepts with Right View.. 21

(IV) Sublimating the Aspiration for Precepts into Altruism with Wisdom.. 23

IV. How the Wisdom of Recognizing Delusion and Affliction Deepens the Practice of Precepts. 25

(I) From Cessation of Evil to Non-Desire for Evil 25

(II) From Passive Defense to Active Purification. 27

(III) Flexible Application of Precepts in Specific Situations. 28

(IV) Mutual Promotion of Precept-Keeping and Meditation. 30

V. Consequences of Delusion and Affliction vs. Wise Altruism (Case Analysis) 32

(I) Literary Case Comparison: Murong Fu and Xuzhu. 33

(II) Insights from a Business Case: Elon Musk’s Business Strategy. 36

VI. Conclusion. 38

References. 41

I. Introduction

Buddhist precepts, as an important component of the Buddha’s teachings, are the foundation for guiding practitioners to cease evil deeds, cultivate good deeds, and progress towards liberation. Precepts not only regulate external behavior but also aim to purify the mind and cultivate virtuous character. However, the practice of precepts lacking the guidance of wisdom often remains confined to the formal observance of rules, neglecting inner motivation and making it difficult to achieve spontaneous virtuous conduct. Without a profound insight into delusion and affliction, precept-holders are easily swayed by internal delusions and afflictions, unintentionally violating precepts, thereby hindering the progress of practice and deviating from the path to liberation.

In view of this, the core argument proposed and substantiated in this paper is that taking the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction as a prerequisite is key to upholding Buddhist precepts, effectively enhancing the self-awareness and effectiveness of precept-keeping, promoting the purity of conduct, and ultimately leading to liberation. This is not to negate the importance of the precepts themselves but to emphasize that the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction should be placed at the foundational position of precept practice, regarding it as a necessary prerequisite for deepening the practice of precepts.

This study primarily analyzes Buddhist scriptures and related texts to explore the definition, complex generative mechanisms, and multi-layered harm of delusion and affliction. On this basis, it elucidates how the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction functions from different dimensions, including contemplating the illusory nature of delusion, discerning the root and harm of affliction, establishing the motivation for upholding precepts based on the right view of causality, and sublimating precept-keeping into the aspiration for altruism. Furthermore, it analyzes how the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction deepens the practice of precepts, upgrading it from mere “cessation of evil” to “non-desire for evil,” transforming it from “passive defense” to “active purification,” and enabling the skillful application of precepts in specific situations, while also promoting the mutual enhancement of precept-keeping and meditation.

To verify and elucidate the aforementioned theoretical viewpoints, cases from different fields are incorporated. Through a comparative analysis of Murong Fu and Xuzhu, two literary characters in Jin Yong’s novel Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, the adverse consequences of clinging to delusion and affliction and the beneficial outcomes of upholding inner wisdom and altruistic aspiration are demonstrated. Simultaneously, the business case of Elon Musk’s open-sourcing of Tesla’s charging pile technology is introduced, drawing a parallel from a secular perspective to illustrate how altruistic behavior can bring about widespread beneficial outcomes, aligning with the Buddhist principle of good causes leading to good effects, thereby further supporting the value of behavior guided by the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction.

This paper hopes to provide modern Buddhist practitioners with operative theoretical guidance through systematic argumentation and diverse case analyses, emphasizing the central role of the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction in strictly upholding precepts, thereby promoting the purity of conduct and the stability of the path to practice, ultimately realizing the goal of progressing towards peace and liberation.

II. Definition, Generation, and Harm of Delusion and Affliction

On the path of upholding pure precepts, the most fundamental and stubborn internal obstacles are the delusions and afflictions accumulated by individuals since beginningless time. If one cannot have a thorough understanding of them and discern their complex generative mechanisms and far-reaching harm, upholding precepts will be difficult to solidify, like trying to build a tall tower on quicksand, facing the risk of collapse at any time. This chapter aims to dissect these two core concepts of delusion and affliction, laying a solid foundation for the subsequent discussion on how to use wisdom to recognize them and thereby effectively uphold precepts.

(I)Definition and Generation of Delusion and Affliction

1. Definition of Delusion and Affliction

Delusion in Buddhism is synonymous with ignorance and wrong views, referring to false and unreal thoughts. The Śūraṅgama Sūtra states that delusion is a false thought.[1] Its falsity leads individuals to have inverted perceptions of things, such as mistaking impermanence for permanence and impurity for purity, thereby triggering behaviors that violate precepts.

Affliction refers to psychological factors that disturb the purity of body and mind. The fundamental afflictions include greed, anger, ignorance, pride, and doubt. Delusion and affliction are closely related, intertwined, and jointly drive precept-violating behaviors. For example, violating the precept against stealing often originates from the affliction of greed, and greed stems from the false cognition that wealth can be permanently possessed and bring lasting happiness, which is a delusion. This failure to see the nature of impermanence drives individuals to generate the greedy thought that possessing this object will bring lasting satisfaction, thus leading to theft. This clearly illustrates how delusion, as an inverted cognition combined with affliction, distorts an individual’s judgment and ultimately prompts them to violate precepts.

2. Generative Mechanisms of Delusion and Affliction

Delusion and affliction do not exist in isolation; their generation is a complex psychological process involving the interplay of past experiences, present emotions, and subjective “fabrication,” which distorts cognition and drives unwholesome speech and actions.

Firstly, delusion selectively evokes material that aligns with present emotions based on “past dust” (past experiences, habits, subconscious memories), exhibiting significant bias. For example, an individual with a history of betrayal develops a sense of distrust. When their current wife has frequent contact with male colleagues due to work, it triggers their affliction of suspicion. They selectively retrieve past memories of being deceived; their ex-wife also used “work relations” as a reason for frequent contact with the opposite sex. They recall how they believed their ex-wife’s explanations at the time, only to discover they were being lied to. Consequently, they misinterpret their current wife’s normal interactions, believing she is “unfaithful,” and speak ill of her to friends, sowing discord, thus violating the precept against divisive speech. This selective evocation of past betrayal experiences provides material and a faulty judgmental framework for their delusion.

Secondly, delusion and the individual’s present feelings and latent afflictions mutually fuse and interpenetrate. Present emotional states, such as anxiety and depression, significantly influence the content and intensity of delusions. For example, an individual in an anxious state may be more prone to activating fear-related delusions about health, mistakenly “fabricating” normal physiological reactions (such as a rapid heartbeat) as symptoms of a serious illness. Latent afflictions, such as strong greed or deep-rooted anger, provide powerful impetus and a clear direction for the development of delusions. Consider an individual with a latent strong affliction of anger who, due to a minor mistake at work, is criticized by a superior. The latent anger is activated, driving them to interpret the criticism as deliberately targeting them, even suspecting a conspiracy. This anger not only provides emotional fuel for the delusion’s development but also guides their thinking in a negative, hostile direction, potentially leading to behaviors such as spreading rumors (violating the precepts against false speech and divisive speech).

In this complex interactive process, “fabrication” is the core characteristic of delusion’s operation. Individuals, based on their preferences, fears, and attachments, subjectively construct and connect the evoked “past dust” with present perceptions and afflictions, fabricating scenarios and distorting facts. This “fabrication” is not based on rational logical reasoning but rather on cognitive processing driven by emotions and the subconscious, causing originally insignificant neutral events to be assigned extremely negative meanings under the processing of delusion, thus triggering stronger emotional reactions and inappropriate behaviors.

Take the affliction of doubt as an example of its operational mechanism: an individual may begin to speculate about others’ motives due to inner insecurity (present negative feeling/latent anxiety affliction) or past experiences of being deceived (past dust). In the process of “fabrication,” they might subjectively interpret another person’s delayed response to a message as evidence of “hiding something” or “not valuing me,” and then, driven by latent anger, spread these unverified suspicions, harming others (violating the precepts against false speech and harsh speech), or even sow discord among different people to verify their suspicions (violating the precept against divisive speech).

Another example, analyzing the operational mechanism of the affliction of greed from a temporal dimension: when an individual is enjoying the sensory pleasure of delicious food (present satisfaction), the power of latent greed may temporarily weaken. However, as the feeling of fullness gradually dissipates and the memory of the food (past dust) is recalled, greed may become active again. At this point, if others prevent or deprive them of the opportunity to enjoy it again, the individual will quickly generate afflictive emotions such as dissatisfaction and anger due to the frustration of their desire. This emotion stems not only from the loss of material but more deeply from the strong attachment to “possession” and “continuous satisfaction,” leading to psychological disparity. Furthermore, this strong affliction may drive them to adopt irrational or even aggressive behaviors, such as robbing food, and may even lead to physical conflict (potentially violating the precept against killing).

Thus, the operation of delusion and affliction is a complex psychological dynamic involving the evocation of “past dust,” the fusion of present bodily and mental states with latent afflictions, and the core process of “fabrication.” It is not merely a wrong thought but a powerful driving force closely combined with affliction. Without wise contemplation, individuals are extremely susceptible to being swayed by its distorted cognition and enveloped by its emotions, leading to unwholesome speech and actions, ultimately resulting in precept-violating behaviors. Understanding this complex mechanism is a key prerequisite for using wisdom to recognize delusion and affliction, thereby achieving pure precept-keeping.

(II) Multi-layered Harm of Delusion and Affliction

Delusion and affliction are not only the internal driving forces behind precept violations but also major obstacles on the path of Buddhist practice, especially in upholding precepts. Their harm is comprehensive and far-reaching, negatively impacting everything from an individual’s physical and mental health to the accumulation of meritorious deeds and the ultimate path to liberation.

1. Disturbing Bodily and Mental Harmony, Harming Health

Delusion and affliction first directly act upon an individual’s three karmas of body, speech, and mind, disrupting their harmonious operation and consequently harming physical and mental health. Volume 8 of the Śrāmaṇera-karmavācanā points out: “If the mind acts unlawfully, then the myriad officials will rebel and harm each other, hence the four great elements become imbalanced, the various faculties become obscured, leading to illness and death, all due to the mind’s evil actions.” [2]Here, “mind acting unlawfully” refers precisely to wrong psychological activities driven by delusions and afflictions such as greed, anger, ignorance, pride, and doubt, which are contrary to the Dharma. For example, if a practitioner is long immersed in anxious delusions about their progress in practice, worrying about falling behind fellow practitioners, this continuous negative mental state will lead to an imbalance of body and mind, potentially triggering physiological symptoms such as insomnia, nervous tension, and headaches. Physical and mental discomfort further causes them to be listless in daily practice activities, making it difficult to concentrate and even harder to maintain a pure state of body and mind to strictly observe the precepts established by the Buddha. For instance, a sick monastic may find it difficult to adhere to the precept of not eating after noon. [3]This is an example of how delusion and affliction (anxiety) lead to bodily and mental disharmony, which may ultimately indirectly cause violations of precepts.

2. Eroding Meritorious Deeds, Leading to Precept Violations

Delusion and affliction are the root cause of all evil deeds. They not only drive individuals to directly violate precepts but also continuously erode and even destroy the accumulated meritorious deeds like termites. Volume 18 of the Mahāvaipulya Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra states: “If there are delusive discriminations, then there are afflictions.”[4] Volume 3 of the Mahākaruṇāpuṇḍarīka Sūtra also says: “All evil arises from delusive thoughts.”[5] Volume 6 of the Mahāyāna-mūla-jātaka-hṛdaya-darśana-sūtra also records: “Delusive thoughts being rampant, meritorious deeds are lost.”[6] These scriptures emphasize the close connection between delusion and affliction, and their importance as the starting point of evil karma and the loss of meritorious deeds. For example, the affliction of jealousy often accompanies delusive discriminations about others’ achievements, driving practitioners to feel dissatisfied and resentful when fellow practitioners receive offerings or praise, and may even lead to gossiping about their faults behind their backs. This behavior directly violates the precepts against harsh speech and divisive speech. At the same time, jealousy itself is an unwholesome karma, directly harming the meritorious deeds that the practitioner may have accumulated through generosity, precept-keeping, meditation, etc. Just as Volume 1 of the Buddha’s Last Instructions Sūtra says: “If one loses mindfulness, then all meritorious deeds are lost.”[7] Delusion and affliction lead to loss of mindfulness, causing practitioners to become mentally scattered and unable to abide in wholesome Dharma, ultimately leading to behaviors that violate precepts and erode meritorious deeds.

3. Heretical Views Deviating from the Right Path

Volume 1 of the Tathāgatācintyaviṣayabuddhakṣetraguṇavyūha Sūtra states: “Bound by heretical views, one loses the right path.”[8] As mentioned earlier, the core argument of this paper emphasizes taking the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction as a prerequisite for upholding precepts. However, when an individual is bound by heretical views, this wisdom is difficult to arise or function, thereby shaking the foundation of precept-keeping and ultimately deviating from the right path to liberation.

Heretical views, as inverted knowledge and opinions, have at their core a wrong understanding of the nature of things and the law of causality. When an individual generates heretical views such as “doing good is useless, doing evil is harmless,” which deny causality, they fundamentally negate the law of karma. This negation directly leads to doubt about the importance of upholding precepts. If one does not believe that good and evil actions will bring corresponding consequences of happiness and suffering, then the significance of upholding precepts and restraining one’s own behavior vanishes. Individuals may consider precepts as mere external constraints, hindering personal freedom and the satisfaction of desires, thereby belittling or even abandoning precept-keeping, ultimately leading to laxity and precept violations. This is completely contrary to the paper’s emphasis on using wisdom to discern delusion and affliction and generating the intention to uphold precepts from within. Without a correct understanding of the law of causality, individuals cannot comprehend that upholding precepts is a necessary path to eradicating evil karma, accumulating good karma, and ultimately leading to liberation.

For example, in contemporary society, some extreme utilitarian ideologies, while not necessarily directly advocating “doing evil is harmless,” excessively emphasize personal gain while neglecting moral principles and the long-term consequences of behavior. Under the influence of such ideologies, some people may hold the heretical view that as long as benefits can be obtained, even adopting some immoral or even illegal means (such as commercial fraud, tax evasion, etc.) is acceptable. They may believe that the law is just a bottom line, and as long as they do not violate the law, they can be relatively lenient morally. The root of this view is the lack of a deep understanding of the law of causality and being blinded by the delusive desire to pursue material benefits. They fail to recognize that even if they escape legal sanctions, immoral behavior has sown the seeds of evil and will produce painful consequences in the future. This contempt for morality and precepts is precisely because of the lack of the ability to wisely contemplate their own delusive desires, failing to see their illusory nature and potential harm. It is evident that heretical views are one of the greatest obstacles to upholding precepts, making it impossible for individuals to establish a correct direction of behavior, let alone uphold pure precepts.

In summary, delusion and affliction bring comprehensive negative impacts to practitioners, from harming physical and mental well-being and eroding meritorious deeds to deviating from the right path and moving away from liberation. The depth of their harm warns practitioners that the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction must be placed at the core of practice. One needs to continuously observe and identify delusion and affliction with the power of mindfulness, not follow them, only then can one strictly observe precepts and achieve pure wholesome results. Conversely, if one lacks the wisdom to recognize delusion and affliction and allows them to grow and spread, it will not only lead to violations of precepts but also bring various suffering consequences and obstacles, ultimately making practice difficult to achieve. Therefore, cultivating the wisdom to recognize delusion and affliction is a necessary prerequisite for pure precept-keeping and progressing towards liberation.

III. Taking the Wisdom of Recognizing Delusion and Affliction as the Basis for Upholding Precepts

Having recognized the harm of delusion and affliction to practice and precept-keeping, the next step is to clearly understand how to effectively counter them. The Dharma points out that the fundamental way to deal with afflictions lies in wisdom. The concept of wisdom in Buddhism has rich layers; broadly speaking, jñāna is singular, while prajñāis the collection of all wisdoms, i.e., all-knowing wisdom. With wisdom, practitioners can become aware of the harm of delusion and affliction, thereby powerfully cutting off the continuity of evil karma, establishing the continuity of good karma, and realizing the purity of precepts. The following will elaborate on how taking the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction as a prerequisite lays and deepens the foundation for upholding precepts from four key aspects.

(I) Wise Contemplation of the Illusory Nature of Delusion

Wisely contemplating the illusory nature of delusion is key to dismantling its deceptive power, thereby breaking practitioners’ attachment to delusion and reducing the likelihood of being driven by it to violate precepts, laying a cognitive foundation for precept-keeping.

Volume 2 of the Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra provides the basis for recognizing the illusory nature of delusion: “However, this deluded mind has no self-nature, it also arises depending on conditions. That is, because it cognizes the preceding conditions through recollection and awareness, it is called mind.”[9] This passage reveals two core characteristics of delusion: no inherent existenceand arising dependent on conditions. Delusion itself does not have a fixed, unchanging, independent entity; its arising entirely depends on “recollection”—the mind’s clinging to and awareness of the “past dust” (people, things, events of the past) and the presently appearing “conditions”.

For example, when faced with the same critical words, different practitioners, due to their different past experiences (past dust), present emotional states, and latent afflictions, will cling to different memory fragments and concepts, projecting completely different meanings. A person lacking wisdom may interpret it as malicious attack, giving rise to strong anger; while a person with wisdom may see it as a kind reminder, giving rise to gratitude or a desire to improve. This illustrates that the thoughts and judgments generated towards the same external condition (i.e., delusion) are entirely subjective constructions made by the mind based on its own state and past habits, are products of the aggregation of conditions, and are not real or permanent existences.

Furthermore, as the Diamond Sūtra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) states: “All conditioned phenomena are like a dream, an illusion, a bubble, a shadow, like dew and lightning; thus shall you contemplate them.”[10] Delusion, as a conditioned phenomenon fabricated by the mind, is also illusory and unreal like a dream or a bubble. If practitioners can truly contemplate delusion with wisdom, they will no longer mistake it for reality and develop strong attachment to it. Just as recognizing the illusory nature of a dream while dreaming prevents suffering from the dream’s fears and sorrows, when practitioners no longer cling to delusions, the driving force of delusions over them will significantly weaken or even disappear.

For example, when strong delusive thoughts of anger arise in the mind, such as “This person is truly hateful,” “I wish they would disappear,” and so on, if the practitioner can use wisdom to contemplate these thoughts—that they are illusory, merely products of the mind clinging to external conditions and internal afflictions, and not inherently real—then the attachment to these thoughts will lessen, directly weakening anger’s driving force on behavior, making it more likely to avoid being controlled by anger and committing various actions that harm others and violate precepts. This wisdom of recognizing the illusory nature of delusion is an important step in cutting off the generation of delusion and the resulting precept-violating behaviors from the source of cognition.

(II) Wise Discerning of the Root and Harm of Affliction

Merely recognizing the illusory nature of delusion is not enough; one also needs the wisdom to discern the root of affliction (the defiled mental states that arise together with delusion) and its harm to oneself in order to truly generate a strong determination to eliminate affliction, thereby more rigorously protecting the precepts.

Volume 2 of the Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra reveals the root cause of the arising of affliction: “Ordinary beings, from inversion and arising delusive discriminations, generate greed, hatred, and ignorance.”[11] The “inversion” mentioned here refers to the wrong cognitions that ordinary beings generate due to a lack of wisdom. For example, clinging to the impermanent body as a permanent “self” will lead to excessive protection and attachment to the body, further triggering various afflictions. Delusive discriminations are the various false thoughts and judgments that arise based on this inverted cognition. The fundamental afflictions such as greed, hatred, and ignorance are precisely generated from these inverted delusions. For example, based on the attachment to “self,” the delusion “I should be respected” arises; when the expectation is not met, afflictions such as anger (annoyance at disrespect), pride (feeling unappreciated), and worry arise. Therefore, fundamental afflictions like greed, hatred, and ignorance are directly generated from inverted delusive discriminations. The function of wisdom lies in being able to clearly discern that the root of affliction lies in wrong cognition and attachment.

Furthermore, one needs to deeply recognize the harm of affliction. Volume 8 of the Aggañña Sutta states: “Among them, if there are those who are learned, virtuous, wise, and intelligent, knowing that these evil thoughts are like diseases, sores, boils, and arrows, having thought thus, they fix their minds on right recollection, do not follow the mind’s lead, causing the mind to be still, bringing much benefit.”[12] The scripture uses the metaphors of “diseases, sores, boils, and arrows” for evil thoughts (manifestations of delusion and affliction), emphasizing their toxic harm to the practitioner’s mind. It also points out that only those who are learned, virtuous, wise, and intelligent can deeply recognize the negative impact of delusion and affliction, and consequently be able to fix their minds on right recollection, not follow the mind’s lead, causing the mind to be still, bringing much benefit—that is, maintain right mindfulness and awareness, not follow the driving force of afflictions to create evil karma, thereby obtaining great benefits.

For example, if a practitioner fails to wisely contemplate their attachment to fame and gain, they may lose their way in the pursuit of these. Such as exaggerating their own realizations to gain the praise of followers, or catering to the preferences of donors to receive offerings; these behaviors may violate precepts such as not lying. Only by deeply recognizing the harm brought by greed will one truly let go of attachment to fame and gain (eliminate affliction), generate from the depths of their heart a desire for pure precept-keeping, thereby firmly upholding precepts and not being stained by fame and gain.

Volume 1 of the Buddha’s Last Instructions Sūtra further emphasizes the importance of recognizing the harm of affliction with a more alarming analogy: “The thieves of afflictions constantly lie in wait to kill people, even more so than enemies. How can you sleep without being alarmed and awakened? The poisonous snakes of afflictions sleep in your heart, like black vipers sleeping in your room. You should use the hook of upholding precepts to remove them early. Only when the sleeping snakes are out can you sleep peacefully. Sleeping while they are not out is the act of a shameless person.”[13] Here, afflictions are compared to thieves and poisonous snakes, warning practitioners to always be vigilant and use the hook of upholding precepts to eliminate afflictions early. This also indirectly emphasizes that recognizing the harm of afflictions is a prerequisite for taking protective measures.

In summary, through the discernment of wisdom, allowing practitioners to clearly see the root of afflictions in wrong cognition and attachment, and their harm, can reduce the likelihood of violating precepts due to them, enabling them to steadily progress on the path of practice.

(III) Establishing the Motivation for Upholding Precepts with Right View

Another important manifestation of wisdom is the establishment of right view, that is, correct understanding and insight. Right view is the root of upholding precepts. As stated in A Study of Buddhism through Buddhist Principles: “All practices take this right view as their foundation.”[14] This statement points out the important position of right view in the entire system of Buddhist practice. Volume 90 of the Zong Jing Lu states: “Therefore, the five perfections are like the blind, and prajñā is like the guide.”[15] Here, prajñā (wisdom, including right view) is likened to a guide, emphasizing the guiding role of right view for the six perfections, including upholding precepts.

The reason why right view can establish the correct motivation for upholding precepts is that it enables practitioners to truly recognize the law of causality of actions and the necessity of upholding precepts for leaving suffering, attaining happiness, and progressing towards liberation. For example, Volume 1 of the Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra states: “Sentient beings in Jambudvīpa, every movement and thought is karma, every one is a sin.”[16] And Volume 5 of the Adbhūta-dharma-parīndana Sūtra also says: “The retribution of good and evil causes is clearly evident.”[17] These scriptures emphasize the recognition of the law of causality, making practitioners deeply believe that even the slightest arising of thoughts will have consequences, thereby becoming more cautious in protecting precepts, ceasing evil deeds, and cultivating good deeds. Therefore, when practitioners truly understand the causal relationship between good and evil actions and the resulting happiness and suffering through right view, they can generate the intention to uphold precepts from the depths of their hearts, transforming it from passive restraint to active practice of keeping precepts.

For example, there are two practitioners. Practitioner A upholds precepts merely out of fear of being punished by monastery rules; their motivation is passive. Practitioner B, on the other hand, deeply believes that upholding precepts is an effective way to cease evil, cultivate good, leave suffering, and attain happiness, and that it lays the foundation for future liberation; their motivation is active. When there are no external constraints, Practitioner B will still consciously protect the precepts, while Practitioner A may relax their demands. This example illustrates that upholding precepts based on right view is more proactive and stable.

Thus, the right view established by wisdom naturally breaks through delusion and affliction. It transforms precept-keeping from a passive external behavioral constraint into a practice of conscious protection of conduct generated by the practitioner based on the understanding of the law of causality and the aspiration for the benefits of liberation. This transformation not only makes precept-keeping more firm but also lays a solid foundation for practitioners to reach the state of leaving suffering, attaining happiness, and ultimate liberation.

(IV) Sublimating the Aspiration for Precepts into Altruism with Wisdom

Wisdom not only establishes the correct motivation for upholding precepts, transforming it from passive observance to active practice, but also sublimates it into the altruistic aspiration of a Bodhisattva.

Buddhism believes that all paths to liberation originate from wisdom. Volume 18 of the Madhyamāgama states: “The path comes from wisdom, not from ignorance.”[18] This statement applies to the entire path of practice. If practitioners can illuminate their hearts with wisdom, they can gradually recognize that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature and are suffering various hardships in the cycle of rebirth, thereby generating unconditioned great compassion and the altruistic mind of oneness. At this time, when the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction is combined with a strong altruistic mind, upholding precepts is no longer merely for personal liberation but is sublimated into an important component of Bodhisattva practice for the benefit of others.

The phrase “precepts for the benefit of sentient beings” in Volume 1 of the Upāsaka-pañcaśīla-vidhi Sūtra[19] clearly points out the aspiration to uphold precepts with the aim of benefiting all sentient beings. This aspiration drives practitioners to willingly abandon worldly pleasures and strictly observe precepts, with the purpose not only of personal liberation but also of better benefiting sentient beings through the merits accumulated by upholding precepts.

For example, upholding the precept against killing is not just about avoiding directly taking the lives of other beings but extends to actively protecting weak lives, such as rescuing injured animals and persuading others to abstain from killing and release life. This aspiration for upholding precepts is entirely based on the benefit of others. Similarly, abandoning greed and upholding the precept against stealing is not only for self-benefit but also for accumulating resources and broadly benefiting others.

Therefore, when the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction sublimates precept-keeping into the aspiration for altruism, it transcends individual self-perfection and leads to the vast aspiration and practice of benefiting all sentient beings, deepening the foundation of precept-keeping.

IV. How the Wisdom of Recognizing Delusion and Affliction Deepens the Practice of Precepts

This chapter will elaborate on how upholding precepts premised on the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction surpasses the way of upholding precepts that only focuses on external behavioral norms in terms of ceasing evil, purifying the mind, applying flexibly, and promoting meditation, fundamentally deepening the practice of precepts and reducing the likelihood of violating them.

(I) From Cessation of Evil to Non-Desire for Evil

Precept-keeping guided by wisdom, its goal is not merely the external behavioral norms of precept-keeping, but also directly addresses the inner mind, reaching the state of non-desire for evil.

For example, when the thought of jealousy arises, a practitioner lacking wisdom may only strive to restrain from expressing jealousy in behavior; they may not speak ill of the other person behind their back or openly exclude them. However, because they have failed to fundamentally deal with the inner affliction of jealousy, they may still feel displeasure, pain, and anxiety inwardly due to others’ achievements, and even secretly hope for the other person’s failure, plotting hidden retaliation. This state has not truly purified the mind.

On the other hand, a practitioner with the wisdom to recognize delusion and affliction, when the thought of jealousy arises, can immediately use wisdom to contemplate that this thought is illusory, is associated with affliction, and can discern the harm of jealousy—it not only makes one’s inner mind suffer but also erodes meritorious deeds and brings about evil consequences (the more one is jealous, the more one loses). Based on this recognition, they will not identify with this thought, let alone act upon it. Instead, they will actively use wisdom to transform this mental state, for example, by practicing rejoicing in others’ merits. They will observe the good causes and conditions upon which others’ achievements depend and sincerely rejoice in the good results of others, while also vowing that they too can possess the same good causes, conditions, and results through correct practice. Through this wise contemplation, discernment, and transformation, the thought of jealousy will gradually subside and dissolve, eventually reaching the state of “non-desire for evil.” At this point, there is no longer the affliction of jealousy as a driving force to generate any behavior that violates precepts. This is a deeper level of practice of precept-keeping guided by wisdom.

(II) From Passive Defense to Active Purification

Precept-keeping lacking wisdom often involves practitioners being cautious and meticulous out of fear of violating the rules; their effort is directed towards avoiding transgression, which is a passive defense. Precept-keeping premised on wisdom, however, is an active process of inner purification. Practitioners use wisdom to directly counter inner afflictions, taking precept-keeping as a positive means of transforming afflictions.

For example, a practitioner lacking wisdom but possessing the affliction of pride, when upholding the precept against lying, may only carefully avoid lying because they fear that if their lies are exposed, they will lose their reputation and face. This is a typical passive defense. Deep down, their mind may still be full of emotions such as “I am stronger than others” and “I should be treated specially,” which are rooted in pride.

A practitioner with wisdom, however, knows that pride is one of the fundamental afflictions that poisons the mind and hinders practice, leading to the deterioration of interpersonal relationships, complacency and regression, and even precept-violating behaviors such as lying (exaggerating one’s own realizations or belittling others to elevate oneself). Therefore, they will actively use wisdom to subdue the inner pride, diligently cultivate humility and respect, sincerely treat everyone, and appreciate and learn from the strengths of others. This process of fundamentally purifying the inner mind and subduing the affliction of pride naturally enables them to be cautious in speech and action, genuinely respect others from the heart, thereby avoiding lies arising from pride (such as exaggerating their own spiritual experiences or belittling others to elevate themselves). This not only protects the precept against lying but also fundamentally subdues the affliction of pride. This is the active purification achieved by precept-keeping guided by wisdom.

(III) Flexible Application of Precepts in Specific Situations

Buddhist precepts provide practitioners with clear behavioral norms. However, real-life situations are often complex and variable. How to appropriately apply precepts in specific situations, rather than getting caught up in the literal wording, requires the guidance of wisdom. Wisdom enables practitioners to transcend the literal meaning of precepts, deeply understand the essential principle of precepts being rooted in the mind, and thus make judgments in specific situations that best align with the path to liberation and the principle of benefiting others. Volume 4 of the Upāyakauśalya Sūtra records a typical case:

Therefore, I now speak to you according to his thought. You should consider what skillful means you can employ to prevent this evil person from committing the act of killing and avoiding the retribution of hell, and also to ensure that the merchants all preserve their lives. Why? Because these five hundred merchants have all attained irreversible establishment in Anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi, and if that evil person commits the act of killing against those who abide in the Bodhisattva Dharma, he will forever fall into hell, with no hope of release. Therefore, you should now devise skillful means to rescue them well.

…At that time, the leader of the merchants, having thought thus, immediately employed skillful means and took his life. When that evil person died, he was reborn in the heavens.[20]

This passage describes how a Bodhisattva, in a critical situation, used skillful means (methods corresponding to wisdom) to prevent an evil person from killing five hundred merchants who had attained the stage of non-retrogression in their Bodhisattva path, thereby avoiding the extremely heavy evil karma and the consequence of falling into hell for countless eons for that evil person. In this situation, the Bodhisattva used wisdom, not adhering rigidly to the literal precept against killing, but with a thorough understanding of causality (mind being the root), and through skillful means, took an action that aligned with the ultimate benefit and the core spirit of the precepts (preventing evil karma, purifying mental conduct, and rescuing sentient beings). This illustrates that the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction (including a deep understanding of causality) enables practitioners not to be bound by the rigid observance of precepts but to focus on the mind as the root and purify the precepts.

(IV) Mutual Promotion of Precept-Keeping and Meditation

Buddhist practice emphasizes the sequence and interrelationship of the three non-outflow studies: precepts, concentration, and wisdom. Pure precept-keeping provides the foundation for concentration, profound concentration creates the conditions for the arising of wisdom, and wisdom, in turn, guides precept-keeping and concentration. Precept-keeping premised on the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction can powerfully promote the cultivation of concentration. At the same time, the increase in the power of concentration can conversely solidify the upholding of precepts.

Volume 4 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra states: “You but do not follow the three continuities of the world, karma-results, and sentient beings. Because the three conditions are severed, the three causes do not arise. Then, in your mind, the madness of Yajñadatta will naturally cease; cessation is Bodhi.”[21] This passage reveals that not following delusions (of the world, karma-results, and sentient beings) is key to stopping the inner turmoil and realizing Bodhi. From the perspective of actual practice, pure precept-keeping is an important foundation for helping practitioners not follow delusions and gather their body and mind. When practitioners carefully guard their three karmas of body, speech, and mind, avoiding violations of precepts, they can effectively reduce inner distractions and gross afflictions, creating favorable conditions for entering deeper states of concentration. The purer the precept-keeping, the easier it is for the mind to become stable, and the easier it is for the power of concentration to arise and grow.

Conversely, profound concentration can also powerfully promote the upholding of precepts. The inner clarity and sharp awareness brought by concentration enable practitioners to clearly see the arising and operation of delusion and affliction. Through this clear wise awareness, practitioners can more timely and powerfully counter them, thus making it easier to uphold precepts and avoid committing precept-violating behaviors driven by delusion and affliction, forming a virtuous cycle of mutual promotion and support between precept-keeping and concentration.

In summary, precept-keeping guided by the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction can fundamentally enhance the depth and breadth of precept practice, enabling practitioners to, on the basis of ceasing evil, further realize inner purification and the growth of wisdom, thereby progressing towards liberation more quickly and more steadily.

V. Consequences of Delusion and Affliction vs. Wise Altruism (Case Analysis)

This chapter will specifically illustrate the adverse consequences of clinging to delusion and affliction and the beneficial outcomes of upholding the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction and practicing altruism through a comparative analysis of literary characters and the insights from a business case. This will further argue that the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction is not only the foundation for pure precept-keeping but also an important prerequisite for obtaining good results and peace.

(I) Literary Case Comparison: Murong Fu and Xuzhu

In Mr. Jin Yong’s novel Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, the vastly different fates of the characters Murong Fu and Xuzhu vividly illustrate the stark contrast between the harm of clinging to delusion and affliction and the beneficial outcomes of wise altruism.

Consider Murong Fu, whose life ambition was to restore the Great Yan kingdom. From a Buddhist perspective, this ambition originates from a strong greed and attachment to worldly power and fame. This attachment completely blinded his mind, causing all his actions to revolve around this delusive affliction, filled with scheming and lacking in kindness. He could resort to any means to achieve his goal, such as using Duan Yu and even cruelly killing Bao Butong, his loyal retainer. These behaviors are typical precept violations, stemming from his heart being completely driven and controlled by the delusion of restoring his kingdom and the accompanying afflictions of greed, anger, ignorance, and pride.

Volume 35 of the Saṃyutta Nikāya profoundly reveals the harm of afflictions such as greed, anger, and ignorance:

Those who are stained by lust, their minds obscured by lust, harm themselves, or harm others, or harm both themselves and others; they experience suffering and grief in this life and in the next life, and in both this and the next life; their minds are constantly filled with sorrow and painful feelings. If they are obscured by hatred, obscured by delusion, they harm themselves, harm others, harm both themselves and others, and so on, even to constantly experiencing sorrow and painful feelings. Furthermore, lust is blinding, without sight, without wisdom, with weak wisdom-power, an obstacle, not clear, not rightly awakened, not leading to Nirvana. Hatred and delusion are also like this.[22]

Murong Fu’s strong obsession with restoring the Great Yan kingdom is a vivid portrayal of the obscuration of lust described in the scripture. This strong delusive greed blinded his mind and moral judgment, driving him to use any means to achieve his goal, harming others. Ultimately, his scheming failed to achieve the goal of restoring his kingdom, but instead led to his isolation, loss of reputation, and a tragic end, even causing him to become mentally deranged because he could not bear the shattering of his delusive ambition. This is a typical case of clinging to delusion and affliction inevitably leading to adverse consequences.

In contrast, Xuzhu was naturally simple and kind, his actions often stemming from innate goodness and a desire to help others, which highly aligns with the Buddhist thought of “altruism.” Even when facing life-threatening dangers, he did not act according to delusion and affliction but adhered to kindness and altruism, making correct choices (such as the “self-eating chess piece” move in the Zhenlong chess game, disregarding his own life to save Tianshan Tonglao).

As stated in the Itivuttaka: “All that exists is based on meritorious deeds, but not worth one-sixteenth part of the liberation of the heart filled with loving-kindness. The radiance of the liberation of the heart filled with loving-kindness is excellent and illuminating.”[23] Xuzhu’s kindness and helping others are behavioral manifestations of the liberation of the heart filled with loving-kindness praised in the scripture. His kindness and altruistic actions enabled him to resolve numerous crises and ultimately achieve a seemingly accidental but actually consistent with his inner qualities, perfect ending.

Through the stark contrast between Murong Fu and Xuzhu, it is clear that clinging to delusion and affliction, the behaviors driven by them are full of harming others, inevitably leading to violations of precepts and the adverse consequences of mental and physical suffering. Conversely, upholding the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction, following altruistic good intentions, even when facing crises, can resolve them and ultimately lead to good outcomes.

(II) Insights from a Business Case: Elon Musk’s Business Strategy

Observing business cases can also reveal insights that align with the Buddhist wisdom of altruism and the law of causality. Elon Musk and his company Tesla’s certain business strategies provide a thought-provoking case.

For example, Tesla’s move to open-source its electric vehicle charging pile technology patents, from a short-term profit perspective, allows competitors to use its technology, which seems like a disadvantageous behavior. However, from a long-term perspective, this altruistic behavior aimed at promoting the development of the entire electric vehicle industry ultimately helped Tesla establish a broader market base and industry leadership.

Analyzing from a Buddhist perspective, Musk’s decision embodies a breaking through of the delusion of “self-centeredness.” Traditional business models are often based on the thinking of “exclusive resources,” that is, treating technology as a competitive advantage and striving to maximize one’s own interests. This thinking originates from a strong attachment to “I,” “my technology,” and “my interests,” which is a manifestation of delusion and affliction.

Musk’s choice to open-source patents is a behavior that transcends “self-centeredness.” He recognized that the development of the electric vehicle industry requires the common progress of the entire ecosystem, rather than the exclusive dominance of a single company. This wisdom focused on promoting the common development of the industry has common ground with altruistic behavior in Buddhism.

This insight also aligns with the understanding of the law of causality in Buddhism. Buddhism believes that all actions have their causes and effects. Short-term “self-benefiting” behaviors may bring immediate gains, but in the long run, they harm overall interests and ultimately harm one’s own interests. “Altruistic” behaviors, although seemingly sacrifices in the short term, can ultimately bring broader and more lasting good results.

Musk’s behavior of open-sourcing patents is a practice of this law of causality. Through “altruistic” behavior, he promoted the development of the entire electric vehicle industry, ultimately bringing huge benefits to Tesla as well.

Of course, the complexity of commercial behavior should also be rationally analyzed to avoid simply equating it with Buddhist practice, but the long-term benefits of altruism shown by its results have the same underlying logic as recognizing delusion and affliction (removing obstacles that obscure wisdom), establishing right view (understanding the law of causality), and ultimately generating an altruistic mind (expanding the scope of benefit) leading to peace and liberation in Buddhism.

Through the above analysis of literary character comparison and business case, it can be seen that clinging to delusion and affliction often leads to adverse consequences; conversely, behaviors based on the wisdom of recognizing delusion and with altruism as the starting point can bring about long-term good results. This strongly corroborates that the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction, and the pure precept-keeping and altruistic behaviors guided by it, are important prerequisites for obtaining good results. Only by clearly seeing the illusory nature and harm of delusion and affliction, and guiding actions with an altruistic mind, can one progress towards peace and liberation.

VI. Conclusion

This paper has deeply explored the arising and operational mechanisms of delusion and affliction, as well as their multi-layered harm. Based on this, it has argued that taking the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction as a prerequisite is key to upholding Buddhist precepts. The study shows that this wisdom not only helps practitioners discern the root of inner evil thoughts and establish the motivation for upholding precepts based on right view but also fundamentally enhances the autonomy and effectiveness of precept practice. Consequently, precept-keeping transforms from passive external behavioral norms to active inner purification, and further sublimates into altruistic Bodhisattva practice. Through the analysis of literary characters and business cases, it is further demonstrated that clinging to delusion and affliction inevitably leads to adverse consequences, while upholding wisdom and embracing an altruistic mind can bring about long-term good results and peace. This conclusion highlights the crucial role of the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction in guiding pure precept-keeping and altruistic behavior, and its value in leading to peace and liberation.

Precept-keeping based on the wisdom of recognizing delusion and affliction not only regulates the behavior of body, speech, and mind but also delves into the inner mind, requiring practitioners to observe and transform potential delusion and affliction with mindfulness. Through continuous introspection and purification, precepts will gradually be internalized as spontaneous virtuous conduct, thereby realizing the thorough purification of physical and mental behavior, ultimately leading to the goal of leaving suffering and attaining happiness.

Future research can explore how to integrate this wisdom into modern psychological counseling systems to develop practical coping strategies for psychological problems commonly faced by contemporary people, such as anxiety and stress, which are caused by delusion and affliction. This not only has important academic value but can also provide practical significance for promoting mental health in modern society.

References  

Ancient Texts (Ordered chronologically by dynasty)

﹝Hou Han﹞Kāśyapa Mātanga and Dharmaratna, trans.: Sūtra of Forty-two Chapters, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 17.

﹝Eastern Jin﹞Saṃghadeva, trans.: Madhyamāgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01.
﹝Yao Qin﹞Kumārajīva, trans.: Buddha’s Last Instructions Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 12.

﹝Yao Qin﹞Kumārajīva, trans.: Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 08.
﹝Yao Qin﹞Kumārajīva, trans.: Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 15.
﹝Northern Liang﹞Dharmakṣema, trans.: Mahāvaipulya Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 13.
﹝Liu Song﹞Guṇabhadra, trans.: Saṃyutta Nikāya, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 02.
﹝Sui﹞Zhiyi, spoken: Śrāmaṇera-karmavācanā, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 46.
﹝Sui﹞Bodhidharma, trans.: Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 17.

﹝Sui﹞Jñānagupta et al., trans.: Aggañña Sutta, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 01.
﹝Tang﹞Pāramitā, trans.: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 19.
﹝Tang﹞Prajñā, trans.: Mahāyāna-mūla-jātaka-hṛdaya-darśana-sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 03.

﹝Tang﹞Śikṣānanda, trans.: Tathāgatācintyaviṣayabuddhakṣetraguṇavyūha Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 10.

﹝Tang﹞Śikṣānanda, trans.: Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 13.
﹝Song﹞Yanshou, compiled: Zong Jing Lu, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 48.
﹝Song﹞Dharmadeva, trans.: Adbhūta-dharma-parīndana Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 15.

﹝Song﹞Guṇavarman, trans.: Upāsaka-pañcaśīla-vidhi Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 24.
﹝Song﹞Dānapāla, trans.: Upāyakauśalya Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 12.

﹝Min Guo﹞Wuxing, trans.: Itivuttaka, Southern Canon Vol. 26.
Lost in translation: Mahākaruṇāpuṇḍarīka Sūtra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 03.

Modern Works: 

﹝Min Guo﹞ Yinshun, written: A Study of Buddhism through Buddhist Principles, New Continued Tripitaka Vol. 16.

[1] Translated by Pāramitā: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Scroll 1: “These are the false appearances of past dusts, deluding your true nature!”, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 19, p. 108 (bottom).

[2] Translated by Zhiyi: Śrāmaṇera-karmavācanā, Scroll 8, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 46, p. 532 (bottom)-533 (top).

[3] Translated by Kāśyapa Mātanga and Dharmaratna: Sūtra of Forty-two Chapters, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 17, p. 722 (middle).

[4] Translated by Dharmakṣema: Mahāvaipulya Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra, Scroll 18, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 13, p. 123 (top).

[5] Translated by Anonymous Translator: Mahākaruṇāpuṇḍarīka Sūtra, Scroll 3, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 3, p. 140 (top).

[6] Translated by Prajñā: Mahāyāna-mūla-jātaka-hṛdaya-darśana-sūtra, Scroll 6, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 3, p. 318 (bottom).

[7] Translated by Kumārajīva: Buddha’s Last Instructions Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 12, p. 1111 (bottom).

[8] Translated by Śikṣānanda: Tathāgatācintyaviṣayabuddhakṣetraguṇavyūha Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 10, p. 912 (top).

[9] Translated by Bodhidīpa: Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra, Scroll 2, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 17, p. 907 (top).

[10] Translated by Kumārajīva: Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 8, p. 752 (middle).

[11] Translated by Kumārajīva: Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, Scroll 2, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 15, p. 44 (bottom).

[12] Translated by Jñānagupta and others: Aggañña Sutta, Scroll 8, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 1, p. 350 (top).

[13] Translated by Kumārajīva: Buddha’s Last Instructions Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 12, p. 1111 (middle).

[14] Written by Shì Yìnshùn: A Study of Buddhism through Buddhist Principles, New Continued Tripitaka, Volume 16, p. 95 (top).

[15] Compiled by Yánshòu: Zongjinglu, Scroll 90, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 48, p. 906 (top).

[16] Translated by Śikṣānanda: Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 13, p. 783 (middle).

[17] Translated by Dharmadeva: Adbhūta-dharma-parīndana Sūtra, Scroll 5, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 15, p. 444 (middle).

[18] Translated by Saṃghadeva: Madhyamāgama, Scroll 18, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 1, p. 540 (bottom).

[19] Translated by Guṇabhadra: Upāsaka-pañcaśīla-vidhi Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 24, p. 1119 (bottom).

[20] Translated by Dānapāla: Upāyakauśalya Sūtra, Scroll 4, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 12, p. 175 (bottom).

[21] Translated by Paramiti: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Scroll 1, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 19, p. 121 (middle).

[22] Translated by Guṇabhadra: Saṃyutta Nikāya, Scroll 35, Taisho Tripiṭaka, Volume 2, p. 251 (middle-bottom).

[23] Translated by Wuxing: Itivuttaka, Southern Canon, Volume 26, p. 195 (top)-196 (top).

The Nobly Renowned Five Suthras of The Omniscient Buddha to Promote

the Prestigious Virtue of Meththa

Meththãnisansa Suthra Miththãnisansa Suthra Karaneīya Meththa Suthra Rathana Suthra

Mahã Maṅgala Suthra

Intention

To share the peace of mind enhanced within our capacity by adhering to the

teachings of the Omniscient Buddha with others

Compiled by

Dr. Dayananda Bodhinayake Dr. (Mrs) Chandrani Bodhinayake

Special thanks

We wish to pay our gratitude to those

who provided with valuable information & various views about the word of the Omniscient Buddha

by participating in the discussions with us

Free Distribution Only

Preface

It is quite vital to examine the message of the “Meththãnisansa Suthra”

presented by the Omniscient Buddha along with the eleven benefits of the most prestigious virtue of “Meththa”.

In addition to that, the ten benefits spelled out in the “Miththãnisansa Suthra” must be considered before comprehending the most popular & renowned Tri-Suthras namely, “Karaneīya Meththa Suthra”, “Rathana Suthra” and

“Mahã Maṅgala Suthra”.

In all these three Suthras, the Buddha has highlighted the value of promoting “Meththa” to overcome hurtful changes occurring in the humanistic system physically & emotionally due to

“Four Negative Energies” termed as “Chathu Dhathu” by the Buddha.

Those changes are, tightening {Patavi}; squeezing {Aapoo}; warming up {Thejo}; and vibrating {Wayoo} of the particles of the human system due to strong aspirations through attachments.

The teachings of the “Karaneīya Meththa Suthra” are totally devoted to explore three admirable scenarios to nobly practice,

promote and stabilise “Meththa” within.

In the first three verses of this Suthra briefly explains, the basic approach to improve “Meththa” and also the

techniques to be utilised in daily life to promote “Meththa”. The fourth & fifth verses of this Suthra are focused on the major notion of “Meththa”, defined & described as the elimination of strong aspirations or “Chethõ Vimukthiyã”.

Therefore, those verses are also dedicated to explain the framework of an intangible thought by elaborating

its formation, behavioural pattern, and other features.

To examine the negative role of a thought on “Meththa”,

the policy to be applied to overcome such negativities of a thought is explained in the remaining verses.

The way to proceed to maximise & stabilise the monumental virtue of “Meththa” in the interior of the system is examined and elaborated in those verses as well.

Finally, this Suthra indicates how this noble practitioner of “Meththa”

can attain the “Bliss of Nibbana” by improving serenity & tranquillity.

In “Rathana Suthra” the Buddha has explained how to overcome the effects of “Chathu Dhathu” by means of “Meththa”.

Those “Chathu Dhathu” have the potential, to release a massive hurtful energy mass,

in the form of a spherical of waves

towards the universe at various speeds in all directions.

In this Suthra, the Buddha systematically illustrated the path to follow, by gradually enhancing noble intellectuality [Buddha],

to maintain calmful neutral speed within.

Thus, such hurt free neutral speed [Dhamma] plus those noble intellectualities [Buddha] enable

to become a noble being or monk [Saṅgha],

by fully discarding the effects of “Chathu Dhathu”.

The “Mahã Maṅgala Suthra” instructs to overcome the spiritually inherited self-pride.

Once the self-pride spelled out in “Ten Fetters” {Dasa Sanyojana} as “Māna”, “Uddhachcha” and “Avijjā” activates,

the human system is compelled to move along the “Dependent Origination” {Patichcha Samuppado}, and thereby, system undergoes enormous sufferings.

Therefore, the Buddha urged to associate with “Wholesome Actions” and “Ten Perfections” instead of being with “Unwholesome Actions”, which are

eventually connecting towards “Five Hindrances” and “Ten Fetters”

before falling into the most dangerous path of

“Dependent Origination” {Patichcha Samuppado}.

A person adhering to that wise decision allows to lead one’s life towards impartiality or “Majjima Patipada”

by controlling and eliminating the hurtful effects of various fake & fictitious thoughts.

Thereby, the entire system of that person becomes free from all contaminants carrying & confronting by the possessions or sources of the outside world and especially the consequences of eight vicissitudes.

Meththãnisansa Suthra

Evaṅ Me Suthaṅ, Ekaṅ Samayaṅ Bhagavā Sāvatthiyaṅ Viharati Jethavane Anāthapiṇḍikassa Arāme.

Tathra Kho Bhagavā Bhikkhū Āmanthesi:

Thus, I heard {Evaṅ May Suthaṅ}: On one occasion {Ekaṅ Samayaṅ}, the Omniscient Buddha {Bhagavā} was dwelling {Viharathi} at “Jethavane” of Anāthapiṇḍika’s {Anāthapiṇḍikassa} Monastery.

There, the most fortunate {Tathra Kho} Omniscient Buddha {Bhagavā} addressed {Āmanthesi} the Ascetics {Bhikkhū}.

In the “Meththãnisansa Suthra” which is quite relevant to this particular practice of “Meththa” the Buddha has stated eleven benefits that a person could gain by promoting “Meththa”, and that Suthra is as follows:

Meththãya Bhikkhavè Chethõ Vimukthiyã Āsevithāya, Bhāvithāya, Bahuleī Kathãya, Yāneī Kathãya,

Vaththu Kathãya, Annuṭṭhithãya, Parichithāya, Susamāraddhāya Ekādasā Nisaṅsā Pāṭikaṅkhā, Kathame Ekādasa?

Ascetics {Bhikkhavè}, if a person decides to disregard or ignore {Vimukthiyã} the ideas {Chethõ} of receiving, acquiring and attaching onto various worldly possessions for one’s own happiness,

then that behaviour is termed as “Meththa” {Meththãya}.

If a person intends to receive {Lõbha} something from the outside world for happiness, then that person’s system slowly & surely leads to anger and aggression {Dõsha}. Thereby, this person becomes ignorant {Mõha} through blindness about the influential aspects on sufferings by the  worldly possessions towards the humanistic systems.

According to the “Dasa Papa Kamma” or the Ten Defilements as mentioned in texts,

the combined effect of its three elements namely,

“Lõbha”, “Dõsha” and “Mõha” eventually leads to the advancement of excessive conceit & retaliation against anyone.

Thus, shouldn’t ruin one’s system by throwing it into “Mõha” via that path. Live with what you have got rather promoting strong attachments towards various things in the world.

If the process of the system is a bias or opposition towards anything, then painful thoughts would emerge.

Leave behind all possessions of the external world from your interior system and live the life to serve others with no expectations.

How to practice this noble virtue of “Meththa”?

Well, keep on checking whether one’s own actions, speech, thoughts are causing distress to others & oneself and if so, train the six senses to perform neutrally by realising the effects of strong attachments.

The Buddha requested the Ascetics to live their lives in the following manner:

Ascetcis, collaborate with “Meththa” – Āsevithāya; Associate and develop a skill on “Meththa” – Bhāvithāya;

Continually develop that skill on “Meththa” – Bahuleī Kathãya;

In all activities always move and be with “Meththa” – Yāneī Kathãya; Select “Meththa” as the only possession to be with – Vaththu Kathãya. Always follow all the characteristics of “Meththa” – Annuṭṭhithãya.

Without moving away, always reflect on “Meththa” – Parichithāya; and Promote “Meththa” to enhance serenity & tranquillity – Susamāraddhāya.

Thus, if one would gain the following eleven {Ekādasā} benefits {Nisaṅsā} through this practice of “Meththa”, then certainly, brings comfort to all beings.

Let us examine these practical benefits leading towards the Serenity and the Tranquillity.

Sukhaṅ Supathi – Sleeps comfortably & peacefully;

Sukhaṅ Paṭibujjhathi – Awakes comfortably & peacefully;

Na Pāpakaṅ Supinaṅ Passathi – Doesn’t experience any fearful dreams; Manussānaṅ Piyo Hothi – Such people promoting “Meththa” would win the hearts of all human beings possessing high qualities like Tranquillity; Amanussānaṅ Piyo Hothi – Such people promoting “Meththa” would also win the hearts of human beings not possessing high qualities like above; Devathā Rakkhanthi – The inherited controlling power of this person effortlessly support in its own system, to safeguard oneself at difficult times; Nāssa Aggivā Visaṅvā Satthaṅ Vā Kamathi – No injury from poison/fire; Thuvataṅ Chittaṅ Samādhiyathi – Disturbing thoughts would not emerge or appear in one’s own system and allow it to suffer the system severely;

Mukhavaṇṇo Vippaseīdathi – Always possesses a pleasant appearance as a result of sustaining noble qualities and their inherited unique attributes; Asammūḷho Kālaṅ Karothi – Inherits a habituality engraved and composed with “Meththa” when leaving the world, which brings serenity to system; Uththariṅ Appaṭivijjhantho Brahmalokūpago Hothi – Finally qualified to lead future lives with “Four Brahma Vihara” consists of four elements of

Meththa, Karuna, Muditha and Upekkha and they can be described as:

Meththa {Meththaṅ} – Carrying out all duties with very slight attachments towards everything that one associates with, from the outside world; Karuna – Continually promoting “Meththa” to obtain its highest morality; Muditha – The entire system is becoming considerably soothing & relaxing and thereby gradually tends to arise calmness and

peacefulness within significantly;

Upekkha – The impartiality or equanimity awakening & sustaining within and as a result of promoting Meththa, Karuna and Muditha, and thereby system tends to treat everyone equally, including oneself.

Meththãya Bhikkhavè Chethõ Vimukthiyã Āsevithāya, Bhāvithāya, Bahuleī Kathãya, Yāneī Kathãya,

Vaththu Kathãya, Annuṭṭhithãya, Parichithāya, Susamāraddhāya Ekādasā Nisaṅsā Pāṭikaṅkhā, Idamavocha Baghavā.

Aṭhṭhamaṅ Tħẽ Bhikkhū Bhagavatho Bhāsithaṅ Abhinandun’thi.

In view of the above it is clearly seen that in this Suthra the Omniscient Buddha has clearly stated the

real meaning of “Meththa” {Meththãya} to the Ascetics {Bhikkhavė}. It is revealed that “Meththa” is defined as, doing away {Vimukthiyã} with the aspirations {Chethõ} of entangling with worldly sources for happiness.

At the end, all {Tħẽ} the Ascetics {Bhikkhū} listening to this Suthra with great respect {Aṭhṭhamaṅ} and admiration,

felt that this Suthra is specifically preached {Bhāsithaṅ} by the Buddha {Bhagavatho} to each Ascetic,

to fulfil their individual {Abhinandun’thi} requirements.

——The End of the Meththãnisansa Suthra——

Miththãnisansa Suthra

In this Suthra the Omniscient Buddha indicated ten benefits that

a person could gain by not abandoning the competency of “Meththa” already established within and the advancement of that “Meththa” is clearly taught in “Meththãnisansa Suthra”.

Those benefits inherit within as the practice of “Meththa” progresses.

Through maintaining & stabilising “Meththa” within,

it would effortlessly become one’s trustworthy colleague to lead the life with that “Meththa” continually.

Let us examine the ten benefits gain from “Meththa” as stated in Suthra.

1. Pahūtha Bhakkho Bhavathī – Vippavuththo Sakāgharā Bahūnaṅ Upajeīvanthī – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī

Since, this person knows that the life moves from one incident or event to another, that is either towards the virtues or destructive situations {Vippavuththo}, there is no intention to proceed with this living to change its life pattern {Bhavathī} by strongly holding onto various {Pahūtha} sources {Bhakkho} of the external world.

This person also knows that most {Bahūnaṅ} of the items as well as people are required & helpful {Upajeīvanthī} to move along with this life {Sakāgharā}, and therefore, no intention to attach onto such elements forcefully or otherwise.

Such unique views and values are earned by that person {Yo} as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away

from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

• Yaṅ Yaṅ Janapadaṅ Yāthī – Nigame Rājadhāniyo Sabbaththa Pūjitho Hothi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī No matter where {Yaṅ Yaṅ} this person visits {Yāthī} either

a town {Rājadhāniyo}, small villages {Nigame} or large villages {Janapadaṅ} in any country,

that person will be treated with {Pūjitho} all necessities {Hothi}, such as comfort, convenience hospitality as well as with the friendliness by the people {Sabbaththa} in those places.

Such unique views and values are earned by that person {Yo} as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away

from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

3.  Nāssa Chorā Pasahanthi – Nāthimañgñethi Khaththiyo Sabbe Amiththe Tharathi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī

A thief {Chorā} would never {Nāssa} challenge {Pasahanthi} this person to steal the belongings of oneself, because that person believes nothing is under the custody of oneself, and

thereby, lives the life by means of the availabilities only.

Even though a thief steals something from this noble person, that person doesn’t consider that as a theft, because that person believes nothing in this world can be claimed or declared as one self’s own property.

Even the rulers {Khaththiyo} would tend to praise such noble people and therefore, they never accuse {Nāthimañgñethi} or

insult oneself intentionally or otherwise.

Also, able to associate {Tharathi} with all {Sabbe} aggressive {Amiththe} and harsh humans living in this world by treating them with this great spirituality of “Meththa”.

Such unique cordiality is earned by this person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

• Ākkuddho Sagharaṅ Ethi – Sabbhāya Paṭinanditho Ñgāthīnaṅ Uththamo Hothi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī This person’s life or physical actions {Sagharaṅ} do not cause

harm {Ākkuddho} to others {Ethi}, in any circumstance for any reason. Thus, this person can move around everywhere without fear or doubt.

This person is supported {Sabbhāya} by the leniency and empathy {Paṭinanditho} emerged through these qualities, and such compassionate actions, speech, and calmful living become once’s unconditional & trustworthy relatives {Ñgāthīnaṅ}.

Since this person possesses noble qualities and excellent character, everyone respects {Uththamo Hothi} this oneself with great honour.

Such unique attributes are earned by this person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

• Sakkathvā Sakkatho Hothi – Garu Hothi Sagāravo Vaṇṇa Kiththibhatho Hothi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī Whilst earning friendly services {Sakkatho Hothi} from others,

this person serves {Sakkathvā} others with the same spirit, causing no inconvenience to others.

By respectfully performing all activities, this person utilises all three behavioural patterns such as actions, speech and perceiving ideas to respect {Garu} and admire others with full of gratitude & honour.

As a result of possessing excellent and admirable noble qualities {Vaṇṇa}, this oneself becomes {Hothi} highly famous

{Kiththibhatho} in the society.

Such features are enhanced within that person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

6.  Puūjako Labhathe Puūjaṅ – Vandakho Paṭivandanaṅ Yaso Kiththiñcha Pappothi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī

This noble person assists {Puūjako} others to improve {Labhathe} virtues {Puūjaṅ} and thereby, gains reputability {Vandakho} as a result of admiring the spirituality and respecting the methodology

{Paṭivandanaṅ} of gaining “Meththa”.

Furthermore, oneself considers not harming others for any reason, as the best and most soothing, profitable and excellent donation that can be offered to the society. Thus, earns {Pappothi} the

fame {Kiththiñcha} of pleasant and refreshing qualities. The only hope of this noble person is to utilize the life to become righteousness and that universal virtue helps to acquire power {Yaso} to develop impartiality.

Such criteria are enhanced within that person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

• Agghi Yathā Pajjalathi – Devathā’va Virochathi Siriyā Ajahitho Hothi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī This person’s internal fiery & burning {Agghi} domain has already extinguished {Yathā} now. Life itself gets anxiously

illuminative {Pajjalathi} and shines {Virochathi}, because one’s life controls to its maximum {Devathā’va}, and

its actions are sparkling. Becoming a relaxing, pleasant {Siriyā} and soothing person as the internal system is quite capable of

moving away from external troublesome situations.

Such features are developed within that person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

8.  Gāvo Thassa Pajāyanthi – Kheththe Vuththaṅ Virūhathi Puththānaṅ Phalamasnāthi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī

The extensive investigations {Gāvo} carried out {Pajāyanthi} on “Meththa” by this person {Thassa} through one’s own process with the help of experiences acquired so far,

reveal the absolute truth {Vuththaṅ} of this process of life.

Furthermore, every action carried out {Kheththe} by this person would always bring {Vuththaṅ} fruitful {Virūhathi} and skilful results to gain “Meththa”.

These investigations are extended further to find out whether one’s system is freed or burdened from the external worldly possessions or sources.

Eventually, finds {Puththānaṅ} that the system is fully freed

from the worldly issues and prompted with that practice {Phalamasnāthi} to move towards serenity & tranquillity.

This person’s system is well protected from “Meththa” with the help of the supreme power that comes from that pragmatic experimental procedure.

Such gains are inculcated within that person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

9.  Dharitho Pabbathātho Vā – Rukkhātho Pathitho Naro Chutho Pathiṭṭhaṅ Labhathi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī

In respect of the enormously great energy and the powers of “Meththa”, this noble person is able to avoid {Chutho} hurtful incidents or situations. For example, this person escapes unhurt even if falls {Pathitho Naro} from a very high tree {Rukkhātho} or a huge rock {Pabbathātho Vā} which are normally used to hang onto {Dharitho}, to evade {Pathiṭṭhaṅ Labhathi} from sudden unanticipated, unforeseen and unexpected disastrous situations.

Such benefits are gained by that person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

10.  Virūḷhamūla Santhānaṅ – Nigrodhamiva Mālutho Amiththā Nappasahanthi – Yo Miththānaṅ Na Dūbhathī

This “Meththa” is sturdily placed {Virūḷhamūla} in the interior {Santhānaṅ} of this noble person,

due to attachment free life towards worldly sources for happiness. As an example, that firm placement of “Meththa” in one’s interior, is similar to a huge Banyan tree {Nigrodhamiva} with

tough hanging roots onto the ground, and steadily remains in its position for

any frightening stormy {Mālutho} weather.

Since, all unique virtues mentioned here are instilled in the system of this person now, no possibility {Nappasahanthi} of

causing anger & hatred {Amiththā} within.

The aforementioned traits, qualities, attributes and values are to be earned by oneself, only through “Meththa”,

whereas one’s colleagues could not offer such an invaluable.

Such abilities are enhanced within that person {Yo}

as a result of not {Na} weakening {Dūbhathī} and moving away from that great virtue of “Meththa” {Miththānaṅ}.

——The End of the Miththãnisansa Suthra ——

Karaneīya Meththa Suthra

Introduction

Since the “Meththa” is declared or proclaimed as “Chethõ Vimukthiyã”

in the “Meththãnisansa Suthra”, or in other words, disregarding {Vimukthiyã} the aspirations & desires {Chethõ} of,

attaching towards the worldly sources for happiness, here the Buddha has elaborated how the thoughts are collaborating with such aspirations.

Furthermore, all human beings living in this world are continually undergoing changes in the particles of their own physical systems due to such aspirations and desires.

Thereby, those particles undergo considerable changes and they are categorised into four basic parts and they are namely, tightening, squeezing, warming up and vibrating.

They are termed by the Buddha as “Patavi Dhatu”, “Aapoo Dhatu”, “Thejo Dhatu” and “Wayoo Dhatu” respectively and

they are collectively termed as “Sathara Maha Bõōtha.

The influence of such “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” on thoughts is raised here.

Let us examine the formation of a thought through its five elements termed by the Buddha as Rŭpa, Vedanã, Sañgñā, Sañkhāra and Viñgñāna, before extensively examining this Suthra.

Rŭpa – The figurines of worldly sources such as animals, people, objects, situations, etc., are registered in the interior with the help of six senses of humans as “Upãdana Rŭpa”. These “Upãdana Rŭpa” can be recalled, recollected or re-investigated by zooming in, or zooming out, through the interior, when necessary, although they are false or fake images.

This registering process is ongoing and the Buddha described them as froth of a liquid. The term used for “Upãdana Rŭpa” by

the Buddha is “Penapindŭpama” means froth.

Vedanã – Are the sentimental emotions about such “Upadana Rŭpa” to check whether happiness can be obtained through them. Since these “Vedanã” are allowing & helping to identify these fake images of objects to register in the inner system, the Buddha described “Vedanã” as bubbles of froth and they are ready to break at any instant in their own. The term used for “Vedanã” by the Buddha is “Bubuloopama” or bubbles of that froth.

Sañgñā – Defined as the way of identifying or perceiving such “Upadana Rŭpa”, through the signals or pulses transmitted by the “Vedanã” into the inner human system.

Furthermore, “Sañgñā” is the combined effect of both “Upadana Rŭpa” (froth) and “Vedanã” (bubbles of that froth), and the term used by the Buddha to describe “Sañgñā”

is “Marichi-kŭpama” and that means a mirage or an optical illusion. That is to say that although, we identify and recognise the worldly possessions or sources through our six senses as true figurines, they are simply fantasies registering in the interior and fades away in no time, and allow the successive figurines to occupy that place for a while again.

Sañkhāra – Described as the formation of physical & emotional sensations within the humanistic system due to the confrontations

composed through blending of “Rŭpa”, “Vedanã” and “Sañgñā”, together in that successional sequential order.

These formations of physical and emotional sensations

within the system could be shaking and vibrating due to excitements, agitations, anxieties, quivering, trembling, etc.,

This “Sañkhāra” has the ability to influence the humanistic system to change its physical and emotional conditions prevailed just before that particular “Sañgñā” reaches the doorstep of the inner system or the interior.

The “Sañkhāra” subject to change at any time like all-natural phenomena.

That is to say that, “Sañkhāra” always rising and falling away due to their impermanency or “Anichcha” and

thereby they are unable to exist or live for a prolonged period of time.

By considering all these factors the Buddha termed “Sañkhāra”

as “Kada-lŭpama”. That means “Sañkhāra” is unique in its formation, existence as well as when it is dying out.

It is described as a coreless stem of a Banana tree which exists once only and has no reproducing power, and that means each thought

consists of only one “Sañkhāra”, and that will never repeat.

Viñgñāna – Is the outcome resulted from the combination of first four elements of a thought and as mentioned above and they are namely: Rŭpa, Vedanã, Sañgñā and Sañkhāra.

This outcome is expressed as change in awareness or

Viñgñāna [feeling the feelings].

That is an experience a human system is compelled to undergo consistently in this life.

Since this “Viñgñāna” [Change in Awareness] is made up of four fabricated elements namely,

“Froth” [Upadana Rŭpa], registered in the interior as fake figurines; “Bubbles of that froth ready to break away” [Vedanã], is an impression for a sentimental judgment about such fake figurines of worldly sources; “Mirage or optical illusion” [Sañgñā], produced by “Upadana Rŭpa” and “Vedanã” to perceive whether there is a possibility of

gaining happiness from them; and

“Stem of a coreless Banana tree” [Sañkhāra], the changes taking place physically & emotionally in the entire humanistic system confined

to the combined effect of “Upadana Rŭpa”, “Vedanã” and “Sañgñā”, the Buddha termed that “Viñgñāna” as “Mãyûpama” which means

it is just a “Myth”, or fictitious feelings emerged from the above said, “Upadana Rŭpa”, “Vedanã”, “Sañgñā” and “Sañkhāra”.

It pretends that something is existing, but nothing is there.

That means it is purely made up of four such fake & fictitious elements according to the cause & effect scenario in the interior.

The above stated “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” are expressed as

“Chathu Dhathu” by the Buddha and they transmit

“Four Negative Energies”, to the outside world every here and now, through all human systems.

Apparently, the effects of such formations are initiated by the fourth element of a thought namely “Sañkhāra”, and

it inevitably influences all human systems to change both physical & emotional processes

to worsen their situations in some occasions.

Karaneīya Meththa Suthra

1.  Karaneīya Meththa Kusalēna

Yaṅ Thaṅ San Thaṅ Padaṅ Abhisamechcha

Sakko Ujū Cha Sūjū Cha – Sūvacho C’hassa Mudu Anathimānī Activate {Karanèya} an exercise to develop a skill {Kusalēna} to reduce “Lõbha”. That is refraining from uplifting aspirations & desires

on receiving various things of the worldly sources through strong attachments for happiness and that is termed as “Meththa”.

How such skills are developed?

Well, develop such a skill until you come to a stage

where your process of the system is capable enough to deal with the confronting {Abhisamechcha} figurines of the omens of worldly sources fairly lightly as well as softly {Yaṅ Thaṅ San Thaṅ Padaṅ}.

What are the benefits of paying soft attention towards sources of the world?

That enables to perform all actions straightforwardly {Sakko}, honestly {Ujū Cha}, steadily {Sūjū Cha}, humbly {Sūvacho} by oneself {C’hassa}. Thereby, the physical system of that person performs gently and softly {Mudu}. Such performance also helps to keep the entire system free from fearful sufferings.

If possible, strive to develop that softness of the system to its maximum {Anathimānī}. Since, each person possesses different rate of

speed within their respective system, there is no one fixed rate can be assigned or predicted to keep each system calm.

2.    Santhussakhõ Cha, Subharõ Cha, Appakichchõ Cha, Sallahuka Vuththi,

Santhindriyo Cha Nipako Cha – Appagabbho Kulesu Ananugidho Here the Buddha is expressing & unfolding the benefits of developing softness and the gentleness within the system.

That allows to eliminate the prevailing burning sensations existing within from the past actions.

Since the stiffness of the particles of the physical system

has eased considerably, some sort of relief {Santhussakhõ Cha} is now enduring by this person.

Furthermore, emotionally the interior is experiencing unprecedented lightness {Subharõ Cha} and prevails more relaxed situation at present.

Thus, this person doesn’t consider day-to-day activities as a

burden {Appakichchõ Cha} to oneself and therefore now the strength & courage have improved quite well.

As a result of that improvement, this person is able to carry out all actions very lightly {Sallahuka} either professionally {Vuththi} or otherwise without hurting anyone.

The six senses of this person are well controlled {Santhindriyo Cha} now and performing calmly and the system doesn’t disturb with

anger {Nipako Cha} or hatred.

That is because the six senses of this person aren’t supporting {Ananugiddho} to produce and preserve {Appagabbho}

varied {Kulesu} speeds of thoughts within, as in the past.

3.  Na Cha Khuddaṅ Samāchare Kiñchi Yena Viñgñū Pare Upavadeyyuṅ

Sukhino Vā Khemino Honthu Sabbe Saththā Bhavanthu Sukhithaththā

This person is living the life with harmony whilst associating {Samāchare} with the other people {Pare}, and that means there will be no {Na Cha} involvement {Khuddaṅ} in hurtful arguments whatsoever {Kiñchi} with the others which provoke {Yena} to produce {Upavadeyyuṅ}

unnecessary & unpleasant thoughts {Viñgñū}.

Therefore, no harm will be done to others from oneself and from others in return. As instructed above, if one cultivates, promotes and sustains “Meththa”, then that person becomes competently calm and compassionate {Sukhithaththā} to all.

Thereby, the system of that person turns free from burning sensations {Sukhino Vā}. That is because the system is now working to

eradicate and eliminate {Khemino} all {Sabbe} changes {Bhavanthu} that took place within the particles {Saththā} of the physical system, due to hurtful thoughts. Those thoughts are being produced from the  confrontations {Honthu} of the figurines of omens of the worldly sources.

• Ye Kechi Pāṇa Bhūthaththi Thasā Vā Thāvarā Vā Anavasesā Dīghā Vā Ye Mahantā Vā Majjhimā Rassakā Aṇuka Thūlā The effects of “Chathu Dhathu” on thoughts occur as follows:

Firstly, formation of some sort of a {Ye Kechi} lively {Pāṇa} thought commences, and that thought begins to gain its aliveness {Bhūthaththi}.

Then, that aliveness process {Thasā Vā} allows that thought to stabilise {Thāvarā Vā} gently its motion in its own, without leaving any active residues {Anavasesā} behind.

Next up, sustaining that motion or due to repetitively

being with the same thought over a long period of time {Dīghā Vā}, that stabilisation reaches its {Ye} peak {Mahantā Vā}.

Then the “feeling of the feelings” or “Viñgñāna” of a thought becomes effective once it reaches its highest level of stabilisation.

If this thought is related to some action, then it is impossible to prevent that occurrence.

For example, a rift with someone over a period of time can hurt that person at a later time. After carrying out that harmful act the strength of that {Ye} thought gradually neutralise {Majjhimā} and it reduces {Rassakā} further to a puny state {Aṇuka}. Finally, that thought reserves

in the interior of the system as a very tiny seed {Thūlā}.

Such course of action motivates to confess, immediately or after at a later date about a cruel action done by a person himself or herself.

5.  Diṭṭhā Vā Yeva Adiṭṭhā Ye Cha Dūre Vasanthi Avidūre Bhūthā Vā Sambhavesī Vā Sabbe Saththā Bhavanthu Sukhithaththā

Although it seems {Yeva} that the thought has been disappeared {Adiṭṭhā}, it is still alive within the vicinity {Diṭṭhā Vā} of the interior of the system.

It also appears & disappears to insist that it is existing far

away {Ye Cha Dūre} from the human interior, yet it is living {Vasanthi} close by {Avidūre}. Although it undergoes such a process of

appearing & disappearing, it has the potential to regain and activate its abilities of “Chathu Dhathu” {Bhūthā Vā}.

However, that is not possible without triggering an already stabilised

“Upādana Rūpa” {Sambhavesī Vā} realated to such a seed of a thought.

This is how habitual actions are tied and acts faster, before the relapse. For example, a person who used to harm the life of oneself or other lives, may attempt on such actions, towards oneself or others at any moment.

The practitioner of “Meththa” does not allow such cruel situations to occur & dominate even though a

slight buildup of “Chathu Dhathu” through “Sañkhāra”.

That is to say, that person makes an honest effort to

prevent {Sukhithaththā} such formation of changes {Bhavanthu} of one’s own system due to all {Sabbe} hurtful and cruel {Saththā} thoughts in the interior caused by their fourth element of “Sañkhāra”.

6.  Na Paro Paraṅ Nikubbetha Nāthimañgñetha Kaththachi Naṅ Kañchi Byārosanā Paṭighasañgñā Nāgñña Maññassa Dukkhamichcheyya

This person with noble qualities never {Na} creates dispute {Nikubbetha}, arguments or conflicts with others {Paro Paraṅ}.

Furthermore, this person does not {Kaththachi Naṅ} insult {Kañchi} other people with various mindsets {Nāthimañgñetha} at any occasions. Thus, the person who has devoted one’s entire life to promote “Meththa” will never be allowed to suffer {Dukkhamichcheyya}

through “Chathu Dhathu”.

Thereby, prevents all angry perceptions {Paṭighasañgñā} that could erupt as a result of foolish {Byārosanā} behavioural actions caused by

external inhabitants of the world.

This person who possesses brave & noble

intellectuality {Nāgñña Maññassa} does not attach towards such fake perceptions of worldly sources anymore.

That is by recognizing them as just simple messages or signals of omens of such sources.

7.  Māthā Yathā Niyaṅ Puththaṅ Āyusā Ekapuththa Manurakkhe Evampi Sabbabhūthesū Mānasaṅ Bhāvaye Aparimānaṅ

Through the expertise & skills gained by this remarkable practice of “Meththa” one realises that there is nothing to gain from the world, other than being free from the world.

Thereby, that person finds the entire system is healing from all the fearful sufferings. Thus, this noble person takes all appropriate steps to free oneself from the world.

In what way?

As a mother {Māthā} sacrifices {Yathā Niyaṅ} all pleasures to save {Manurakkhe} the life {Āyusā} of her only {Ekapuththa}

son {Puththaṅ}. Further, this person is strongly determined & devoted to save this noble “Meththa” with immeasurable {Aparimānaṅ} perseverance & dedication {Mānasaṅ Bhāvaye}, even though {Evampi} oneself is about to lose all belongings {Sabbabhūthesū}.

8.  Meththaṅ Cha Sabba Lokasmiṅ Mānasaṅ Bhāvaye Aparimānaṅ Uddhaṅ Adho Cha Thiriyañcha Asambādhaṅ Averaṅ Asapaththaṅ

The only policy of this person is to free the system by means of “Meththa” {Meththaṅ Cha} from all {Sabba} attachments towards figurines of worldly sources {Lokasmiṅ} and, highly {Aparimānaṅ} dedicated {Mānasaṅ Bhāvaye} to sacrifice even one’s own life.

As a result of living life in this manner, this person does not undergo any harassments, obstructions or hindrances {Asambādhaṅ}, impending from above {Uddhaṅ}, from below {Adho Cha} and

as well as from all other directions {Thiriyañcha}.

Therefore, it is clearly evident that there is nothing else in this world to oppose {Asapaththaṅ} or to get annoyed with {Averaṅ} in this life.

9.  Tiṭṭhaṅ Charaṅ Nisinno Vā Sayāno Vā Yavāth’assa Vigathamiddho Ethaṅ Sathiṅ Adhiṭṭheyya Brahmametaṅ Vihāraṅ Idhamāhu

This noble person, who has fully grasped the benefits of the proficiency in “Meththa”, determine to preserve this virtue of “Meththa”

whilst being or engage in all postures.

Such postures are, standing {Tiṭṭhaṅ}, walking {Charaṅ}, sitting {Nisinno Vā}, lying down {Sayāno Vā} and until {Yavāth’assa} sleeping {Vigathamiddho}.

That is by establishing neutrality & impartiality {Sathiṅ} with {Ethaṅ} incomparable determination {Adhiṭṭheyya}, to live the life {Vihāraṅ} whilst purifying {Idhamāhu}the system to its the highest level, by discarding its residual impurities & contaminants. That is by accompanying the path of “Four Brahma Vihara” {Brahmametaṅ}, consists of four elements of Meththa, Karuna, Muditha and Upekkha and they are:

• Meththa {Meththaṅ} – Carry out all actions & duties with minimal or slight attachment when associating with all the confronted

worldly sources or possessions through their figurines;

• Karuna – Promote virtue of “Meththa” until it affirms within firmly;
  • Muditha – Sustain that arising soothing calmness and peacefulness resulted from promoting “Meththa” and “Karuna” with

great determination & dedication; and

• Upekkha – Finally treat everyone equally including oneself by utilizing the total impartiality or serenity & tranquillity

awakened through adhering to the instructions spelled out in the “Four Brahma Vihara”.

10.  Diṭṭhiñcha Anupagamma Seīlavā Dassanena Sampanno Kāmesu Vineyya Gedhaṅ

Nahi Jāthu Gabbha Seyyaṅ Punarethīthi

All humanistic systems are continually generating “Upādana Rūpa”

through the following six senses or wombs of production {Gabbhaseyyaṅ} and they are:

• Upādana Rūpa Through Eyes – By strongly entangling with figurines of the worldly sources, these Upādana Rūpa are created

and registered in the interior;

• Upādana Rūpa Through Ears – By strongly entangling with figurines formed due to sounds, these Upādana Rūpa are created

and registered in the interior;

• Upādana Rūpa Through Nose – By strongly entangling with figurines formed due to odor, these Upādana Rūpa are generated

and registered in the interior;

• Upādana Rūpa Through Tongue – By strongly entangling with figurines formed due to tastes, these Upādana Rūpa are produced

and registered in the interior;

• Upādana Rūpa Through Body – By strongly entangling with figurines formed due to touches, these Upādana Rūpa are prompted

and registered in the interior; and

• Upādana Rūpa Through Brain – By strongly entangling with figurines formed due to rates of speeds, these Upādana Rūpa are

induced & stabilised in the interior.

All the actions of this noble person are taking place with great vision

{Diṭṭhiñcha}, by firmly establishing {Anupagamma} immaculate calmness {Seīlavā} within, as a result of

well controlled six senses through the noble quality of “Meththa”.

That establishment of calmness, enhances the ability {Sampanno} of this noble person to see and come to know the role of the worldly possessions on humans very clearly & transparently {Dassanena} as they really are.

What is the noble visual quality that can be secured by facilitating that transparency?

Effortlessly leaning towards the path of impartiality or

“Majjima Patipada”.

That is awakening of “Seela”, “Samadhi” and “Pañgñā” or noble intellectuality.

Here “Seela” means freeing the system from the hurtful influences of the various sources of the world by totally controlling the six senses of oneself.

Thereby, that system can associate “Kããma” with ease, by preventing any physical or emotional disturbances such as

vibrations and that ability is termed as “Samadhi”. Through such practices of “Seela” and “Samadhi”

the potentiality that cultivates to assess the true nature of the cause of fearful suffering in life is known as “Pañgñā”.

Therefore, attractions & retractions {Kāmesu} or “Kããma” on worldly sources are not emerging {Vineyya} in the interior {Gedhaṅ}

of this noble person, due to any incidents.

That is because, the system of this noble person treats all figurines that are confronting towards the six senses [or wombs] of oneself from worldly sources, just as signals only.

That is mainly due to the absence of strong attractions & retractions or “Kããma”.

Finally, this particular invaluable approach of this Suthra for total calmness by means of the virtue of “Meththa” has been endorsed by the Buddha through clearly expressing in the final verse of this Suthra as

“Nahi Jāthu Gabbha Seyyaṅ Punarethīthi”

That is, now the aptitudes {Seyyaṅ} of the six senses or wombs {Gabbha}, have become completely inoperative {Nahi},

to produce {Punarethīthi} hurtful thoughts as in the past by actively entangling with the figurines of the omens of the sources of the world.

Therefore, every here & now this noble person’s life moves towards the “Bliss of Nibbana!!!”

——The End of the Karaneīya Meththa Suthra——

Rathana Suthra

Introduction

According to the commentary, this extraordinary “Rathana Suthra”

was preached by the Buddha to the people of the city of “Vesali”.

In, this Suthra the Buddha specifies the method to awaken & utilize unique virtues, of the Triple Gem, namely, The Buddha, The Dhamma and

The Saṅgha, to promote serenity through “Meththa” by annihilating the “Chathu Dhathu”.

As previously stated, in “Karaneīya Meththa Suthra”,

the “Chathu Dhathu” have the potential to transmit its inherited

“Four Negative Energies” mutually amongst humans.

It is to say that, effects of various formations {Saṅkhāra} on the physical parts of the human systems due to “Chathu Dhathu”, are inevitably influenced all kinds of other systems of the humans living in various parts of the world as well.

When all the actions are taking place one after the other in a human process, a massive energy mass is released into the universe in the form of a spherical of waves at various speeds in all directions from the

interior or core of that human system.

Such process begins from the time we joined the universe as a living being.

Such waves of energies with various speeds carry the effects of Lõbha,

Dõsha and Mõha [stated in page 3] collectively, produced by various attachments or unwholesome actions.

Every here and now, these spherical of waves with Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, emanating from all humans, and such waves constantly colliding in the universe without warning.

Thereby, humans are confronted with three fearful situations and they are:

• Fears due to dangerous, cruel and vicious actions of the people;
  • Fears due to climatic changes such as strong torrential rains, dust storms, tornadoes, cyclones etc; and
• Fears due to unexpected illnesses like contagious & other diseases.

The behavioural pattern of a person with very strong aspirations & expectations as well as carrying hurtful speeds within is

termed by the Buddha as “Amanussānaṅ”.

Such aspirations and speeds are not distributed by the outside world to the mankind. The right opposite of that hurtful behavioural pattern or in other words, the commendable noble behaviour with

impartiality is termed as “Manussānaṅ”.

They are created internally by the people as “Upādana Rūpa”

from the figurines of various sources of the world and they are fake & artificial images only.

Why this Suthra is named as “Rathana”?

The “Rathana” is the most precious pinnacle of this world and it is unparalleled and unique.

Remember the gold, jewels, houses & vehicles are not “Rathana”. Here the family members such as children, parents, siblings, etc., are also not considered as “Rathana”.

Tranquillizing or calming through soothing of all formations of one’s system subjected to various ongoing actions is termed as “Rathana”.

In other words, “Rathana” means illuminating soothing brightness within and disseminating that energy to all communities

of the vast universe through “Meththa”.

That is exactly what every being in this universe is desperately looking for.

However, if an expectation arises, the system pollutes & burns slowly.

Once that expectation or desire is fulfilled our system cools down.

If not, it will go on burning until the required amount of fuel is empty or the effect of “kāāma” diminishes and thereafter cools down in its own.

In both these occasions that thought of view may or not stay in the interior, and if it does, that presence is stored in a puny form.

Immediately after that situation another expectation arises and it also brings burning sensation into the system.

This burning sensation has its own power and also its own rate and both of these factors depend on the potency of that expectation or the desire.

Three collective categories of requirements are prescribed by the Buddha here to contain or extinguish those burning sensations of the human system, and they are, the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṅgha respectively.

The Buddha – accomplishment of the state of supreme serenity and tranquillity by means of gradual development & enhancement of

impartiality by means of the power of sound judgement of one’s own process of the system works with outside world,

The Dhamma – prescribes as the methodology and the path to establish and accomplish a neutral or natural speed by containing appropriate hurt free concepts through “Kalyana Dhamma” within the system

to live the life peacefully, and

The Saṅgha – the qualities that a person would gain to possess a noble behavioural pattern or “Manussānaṅ” by adapting to lead the life with such neutral or natural speed supported by such “Kalyana Dhamma” as well as impartiality or “Upekkha” together.

This Suthra prescribes the accurate process to become a “Unique Saṅgha”

or noble monk by annihilating the influences of inherited behaviour of “Chathu Dhathu” of humans.

It is only possible if one is prepared to adhere to the directives stated in this Suthra, and in that path towards “Unique Saṅgha” a set of achievements are to be fulfilled. Such achievements are based on the accomplishment of the qualities of the Buddha, the sustaining the “Dhamma” and,

the development of skills & attributes of the “Saṅgha, and

they are clearly explained & highlighted in this Suthra in an orderly manner.

As in verses 3, 4, 5 & 6, that person who promotes “Meththa” to overcome the effects of the “Chathu Dhathu”, realises the value of the intellectual advancement achieved through that practice and thereby, immediately refrain from repetitively encouraging on Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha,

to calm down the system by maintaining neutral speed within.

That intellectual advancement and such neutral speed enable to prevent the particles of the system undergoing changes due to “Sañkhāra”,

and obtain a noble trait of a Saṅgha.

That is to say that person is awarded with a reward of

“Eight Stages of Arahanth Path” as a result of purifying the system by establishing “Samadhi” through impartiality.

As indicated in verses 7, 8 & 9, now this person’s policy is to reduce the rates of the speed of the interior and possess a free & calm life by complying with the Tri-Mode of Dispensation of the Buddha,

which comprises with examples, advices and instructions. Thereby, the traits of “Manussānaṅ” ripens & grasp the values of “Four Noble Truths”.

Thus, the effects of “Chathu Dhathu” on the particles of the physical system caused by the rooted seeds of thoughts

in the interior of system do not activate as in the past now.

Furthermore, that grasped “Four Noble Truths” is extensively investigated by this person and achieve the

noble intellectuality through that invaluable profound investigation. This nobly talented person who sacrifices his life for this purpose will be blessed with complete calm & peaceful departure

from this life through the “Path of Arahant”.

The verses 10 & 11 illustrates the following attributes of that noble person. As a result of the enormous visualising power enhanced through the above said qualities, this noble person realises that the changes that occurred

in the entire system due to various internal rates of speed in the past are being eased off now.

Also discovers that although one’s own system was under the threat of activities of the “Dasa Sanyojana”

[as described under “Rathana Suthra” in the next part] in the past, now every effort has been utilised to control six senses to overcome them.

Thereby, this person becomes considerably calmful & peaceful in day-to-day living by refraining from associating with unwholesome actions, speech and thoughts.

Since, this noble person knows the environmental behaviour quite well, able to confidently restrain the physical & emotional changes of

one’s own system to bring about calm.

Let us examine the messages provided by the Buddha in 12 and 13 verses of this Suthra.

In a forest, blossoming and appearing of flowers occur in a systematic way.

Such a situation does not occur in the hot summer because the ground surface is fairly hot.

Thus, like the flowers blossoming in a forest during the appropriate period, that person possesses “Saptha Bojjanga Dhamma” or

“Seven Factors of Enlightenment”,

and able to sustain the inner peace by maintaining the rates of speed of the system at a natural or normal state and enhance the noble intellectuality.

Furthermore, this noble person is rewarded with an award to continually perform this very life with that peace by eradicating

all unwholesome actions and safeguarding the “Kalyana Dhamma”

with compassionate speeds leading towards impartiality or “Upekkha”.

The 14th verse presents an outstanding & remarkable message

to the person who has been adhering to the instructions of this Suthra, from the beginning to the end.

Since the nature of the ancient or the previous process of change of this system is now declining & dying out,

the nine entities of the system refuse to generate hurtful thoughts.

That means no tendency towards neither likings nor dislikings even at a very smaller scale.

This noble person, who possesses calmness in the entire system physically as well as emotionally does not harm others or himself now, has achieved the “Supreme State of Saṅgha”.

This extraordinary calmful life continually performs invaluable service to the all living & nonliving beings with solidarity.

The final 15th, 16th and 17th verses, remind and emphasise the value of stages of the Triple Gem,

namely, The Buddha, The Dhamma & The Saṅgha.

Rathana Suthra

1.  Yāneīdha Bhūthāni Samāgathāni Bhummāni Vā Yāniva Antalikkhe

Sabbeva Bhūthā Sumanā Bhavanthu Athopi Sakkachcha Suṇanthu Bhāsithaṅ

All those gathered here are dwelling closely {Samāgathāni}to themselves by clinging onto their own inherent as well as heritable {Yāneīdha} “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Bhūthāni} or “Four Negative Energies”.

Those negative & hurtful energies of “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” are transmitting towards the universe by each & every individual

from their bases {Bhummāni Vā} or interiors.

That process is capable enough to disperse such energies to {Yāniva} an immeasurable or infinite distance {Antalikkhe} of the universe.

At this moment, these “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” may have the potential to make considerable changes {Bhavanthu} to various systems.

Therefore, it is rather necessary to control that potential of all {Sabbeva}

“Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Bhūthā} to calm down {Sumanā} all systems.

Then participate {Bhāsithaṅ} in this discussion {Sakkachcha} and listen to it attentively & quietly {Suṇanthu} with an open eye by leaving behind {Athopi} those hurtful effects of such “Sathara Maha Bõōtha”.

2.  Thasmāhi Bhuūthā Nisāmetha Sabbe Meththaṅ Karotha Mānusiyā Pajāya

Divā Cha Raththo Cha Haranthi Ye Baliṅ Thasmāhi Ne Rakkhatha Appamaththā

To soothe the rough effects of those {Thasmāhi}

“Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Bhuūthā} introduce hurt free concepts with no strong attachments to the entire {Sabbe}

internal community {Pajāya} of one’s humanistic process with great determination.

These strong attachment free concepts could only be promoted {Nisāmetha} through an undertaking {Karotha} which is

termed here as, a skill development exercise on “Meththa” {Meththaṅ}. Thereby, that internal community or the population {Pajāya} of one’s own process turn into “Manussānaṅ” {Mānusiyā} with noble qualities.

That skill development exercise on “Meththa” allows to gain impartiality by developing “Four Brahma Vihara” consists of four elements of Meththa, Karuna, Muditha & Upekkha and that procedure is as follows:

• Meththa {Meththaṅ} – Carrying out all duties with slight attachment towards everything that you associate with, from the outside world;
  • Karuna – Continually training “Meththa” to obtain its highest state;
    • Muditha – The entire system becoming considerably soothe and gradually tends to arise calmness and peacefulness significantly;
    • Upekkha – The impartiality or equanimity awakening within and thereby the system treats everyone equally including oneself.

Do away {Haranthi} with participating in activities such as {Ye} ceremonies of blessings, offerings, various rituals or other similar actions by hoping for various returns {Baliṅ} to eliminate the vibrative sufferings.

Instead develop a skill to promote “Meththa” in all activities that you involve in during day-time {Divā Cha} and night-time {Raththo Cha}. Thereby, such precious life releases soothing energies with free of Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha to the universe and they are enormously beneficial to all.

Therefore, it is necessary to be with a skill development exercise on

“Meththa” without delay {Appamaththā} to develop & maintain

{Rakkhatha} that ability of “Meththa” on {Ne} internal community or population to liberate {Thasmāhi} the system from such hurtful formations of Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha.

The methodology to develop the skills on “Meththa” is clearly and precisely described by the Buddha in the “Karaneeya Meththa Suthra”.

The remaining verses of this invaluable Suthra clearly elaborates that particular method to awaken & utilize unique virtues or

Triple Gem of The Buddha, The Dhamma & The Saṅgha, to accomplish the tranquillity by completely annihilating the “Sathara Maha Bõōtha or “Chathu Dhathu”.

3.  Yaṅ Kiñchi Viththaṅ Idha Vā Huraṅ Vā Saggesu Vā Yaṅ Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ

Na No Samaṅ Aththi Thathāgathena Idampi Buddhè Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ – Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

If a person {Yaṅ Kiñchi} truthfully engages {Viththaṅ} in this particular {Idha Vā} skill development {Huraṅ Vā} exercise to promote “Meththa”, would certainly be able to release illuminative

soothing {Paṇīthaṅ} energy like a gem {Rathanaṅ}.

That occurs through one’s system {Yaṅ} and generate & spread

calmness {Saggesu Vā} to all beings of the entire universe, in the form of a mass of a spherical of waves, at neutral speeds in all directions.

Furthermore, this person who obeys such instructions certainly realises that there is no any other {Na No} great, invaluable

and unparalleled {Samaṅ} level {Thathāgathena} of calmful intuition {Aththi} existing in this world or even in the whole universe.

Thereby {Idampi} that person recognises that particular intuition as the highest state of serenity or wisdom {Buddhè} that a human could ever experience in this planet.

Therefore, it brings illuminative soothing energy like a gem {Rathanaṅ} of equanimity {Paṇīthaṅ} to that particular person’s system.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

4.  Khayaṅ Virāgaṅ Amathaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Yadajjhagā Sakkya Munīe Samāhito

Na Thena Dhammena Samaththi Kiñchi Idampi Dhamme Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

That already eliminated repetitive process {Virāgaṅ} of releasing a massive energy mass into the universe in the form of a spherical of waves at various speeds in all directions by means of Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, would not be allowed {Khayaṅ} to reoccur and harm the beings in the universe again.

That successful achievement is a wonderful {Paṇīthaṅ} privilege {Amathaṅ} to a life that strived hard to sustain calmness by promoting skills that lift noble intellectuality.

To do so the assistance of the above mentioned “Four Brahma Vihara”

is endorsed & employed and thereby, this system of the person tends to incline {Samāhito} towards the path were the

Blessed Ones’ {Sakkya Munīe} such as Arahanths’ {Yadajjhagā} have approached to attain the eternal calmness.

There is no {Na} any other method {Thena} to equate {Samaththi} it to this particular one {Kiñchi} and therefore, this method enables to

maintain the neutral speed {Dhammena} in the interior by means of “Kalyana Dhamma”. That enables to promote, propagate, enhance and sustain noble intellect within, through “Four Brahma Vihara”.

Consequently, all the doubtful views about this life could be eliminated gradually to bring about incomparable soothing feeling into that system. This know-how drives that person into the path of “Majjima-Patipada” or impartiality and enables to realise its power, value and the uniqueness.

There is no brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} as delightful {Paṇīthaṅ} as unique energy with neutral speed {Dhamme} stabilises within {Idampi}.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

5.  Yaṅ Buddha Seṭṭho Parivaṇṇayī Suchiṅ Samādhi Mānan Tharikaññamāhu Samādhi Nā Thena Samo Navijjathi Idampi Dhamme Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

If a person {Yaṅ} is prepared to purify {Suchiṅ} one’s own system systematically {Parivaṇṇayī} to bring about that great {Seṭṭho} intuition of the life process of intellectually sound tranquillity {Buddha} to one’s life, then that person would be able to proceed along this path which ultimately rewards the highest intuition or supreme impartiality, of “Samadhi”.

Thereby, able to reach {Tharikaññamāhu} its highest-level {Mānan} or in other words, eternal “Samadhi” or serenity & tranquillity.

Here it appears {Nā Thena} that there is no {Navijjathi} any other way to achieve that unique {Samo} and supreme impartiality {Samādhi}.

That {Idampi} soothing {Paṇīthaṅ} tranquillity develops by stabilization of neutral speed {Dhamme}within and such brightly illuminative

gem {Rathanaṅ} of an achievement is not {Navijjathi} realised in the past.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

6.  Ye Puggalā Aṭṭha Sathaṅ Pasatthā Chaththāri Ethāni Yugāni Honthi

Tħẽ Dakkhiṇeyyā Sugathassa Sāvakā Ethesu Dinnāni Mahapphalāni Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

Instead of searching for things from the outside world for happiness this {Ye} this person {Puggalā} is now prepared to live the life with the availability and adhering to the instructions provided in the above verses.

Thereby, able to awake impartiality or “Samadhi” by controlling six senses. Eventually, able to {Sathaṅ} achieve {Honthi} and consolidate {Pasatthā} the following Eight Noble Stages {Aṭṭha} that is {Ethāni}

four {Chaththāri} pairs {Yugāni} in short.

Furthermore, after totally controlled & purified the system from all unwholesome impurities, this noble person accomplishes

the Eight Stages of Arahanth Path and they are:

• Sothapanna Magga – Sothapanna Phala – This noble person performs listening & preaching sessions, through one’s own interior, to broadly educate oneself, about the message of this Suthra, from the

very beginning up to this particular verse by paying full attention with great concern and scrutiny;

• Sakurudaagami Magga – Sakurudaagami Phala – Thereby this person is getting prepared in all possible ways to adhere to the

instructions, advices and guidance to move along the prescribed path of this Suthra, purposefully, diligently and also with determination;

• Anâagami Magga – Anâagami Phala – Once the system of this noble person has decided to move along the path prescribed in this Suthra, that firm & exceptional decision will not be reversed or called off to

move along a different path or elsewhere for any reason; and

• Arahanth Magga – State of Arahanth – To reach the final destination of this very life or to achieve the state of

“Supreme & Noble Arahanthship” or an “Incomparable Blessed Human” {Manussānaṅ}, through overcoming the formation of cruel thoughts, this noble person preserves the most essential & invaluable characteristics & attributes of serenity & tranquillity to maintain the calmness and peacefulness throughout this very life.

Thereby {Tħẽ}, this particular person is rewarded with an award {Dakkhiṇeyyā} known as the extraordinary

Noble Monkhood {Sugathassa Sāvakā}.

It would be the highest achievement that a human being could reach in this life and that would eventually open the doors to eternal peace.

These are {Ethesu} great qualities {Mahapphalāni} resulting unparalleled discipline {Dinnāni} and they permit to improve the attributes of a “Saṅgha”. Thereby {Idampi} the continually growing traits of a

monk {Saṅghe} become a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} and such virtues are appreciated {Paṇīthaṅ}.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

7.  Ye Suppayuththā Manasā Daḷhena Nikkāmino Gothama Sāsanamhi

Tħẽ Paththipaththā Amathaṅ Vigayha Laddhā Mudhā Nibbuthiṅ Bhuñjamānā Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

The genuine intention of this particular person {Ye}, who is being engaged in a new skill development activity {Suppayuththā} to reduce the

speed {Daḷhena} of the interior {Manasā} to its neutral level,

is to promote neutral concepts only, rather rely on intentions leading to fearful circumstances through Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha.

To perform such tasks, this person truthfully utilises and rely only on the Tri-Fold Dispensation {Gothama Sāsanamhi} consists of advices, instructions through experiences of the Omniscient Buddha. Thus, this person realises that reduction {Nikkāmino} of high-speed in the interior is an elixir or essence {Amathaṅ} for the system to stay calm with peace.

By selecting that norm of reducing {Vigayha} high-speed in the interior as the only policy {Paththipaththā} to move along with this life,

this person {Tħẽ} gradually utilises all acquired experiences {Bhuñjamānā} to move away {Mudhā} from attachments.

Now the main purpose is to live a hindrance free {Nibbuthiṅ} life

to continually sustain & stabilise {Laddhā} that great serenity & tranquility. As a result of it, all the spiritual ambitions of this person begin to flourish.

Thereby {Idampi} the continually growing traits of a monk {Saṅghe} become a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} and such virtues are recognised & appreciated {Paṇīthaṅ} by oneself.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

8.  Yathinda Keīlo Paṭhaviṅ Sitho Siyā Chatubbhi Vāthebhi Asampa Kampiyo

Tathūpamaṅ Sappurisaṅ Vadāmi Yo Ariyasachchāni Avechcha Passathi

Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

Now this person has acquainted with skills to reduce excessive speeds arise through the hidden {Yathinda} tiny {Keīlo} residual elemental thoughts {Sitho Siyā}.

Therefore, certainly be able to minimise and prevent the adverse and destructive vibrations {Kampiyo} of the entire system by eliminating {Asampa} the effects of

“Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Chatubbhi}, explained above.

Thus, this particular noble {Sappurisaṅ} person develops {Vadāmi} one’s own system to refrain {Tathūpamaṅ} from

attractions & retractions towards the various substances of the world. Thus, this particular non-attachment policy with power, helps this person {Yo} to undoubtably {Avechcha} investigate the behavioural

patterns as well as the effects of worldly substances on one’s own system to comprehend, examine, and incorporate with {Passathi} the

“Four Noble Truths” {Ariyasachchāni}.

Thereby {Idampi} the continually growing traits of a monk {Saṅghe} become a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} and

such virtues are recognised & appreciated {Paṇīthaṅ} by oneself.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

9.  Ye Ariya Sachchāni Vibhāvayanthi Gambheīra Paññena Sudesithāni

Kiñgchāpi Tħẽ Honthi Bhusappamaththā Na Tħẽ Bhavaṅ Aṭṭahamaṅ Ãdiyanthi Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

As a result of this particular incorporation this {Ye} particular person does engage in a comprehensive {Vibhāvayanthi} as well as

an extensive & intensive research investigation about the

“Four Noble Truths” {Ariya Sachchāni}.

Through it, one tries to develop the most dignified {Gambheīra} and distinguished noble intellectuality {Paññena} by performing speaking & listening sessions about the “Four Noble Truths” with

oneself {Sudesithāni} purposefully & continually.

That is to enhance the noble intellectuality to examine and explore the consequences as well as to overcome the cause & effect of “Sathara Maha Bõōtha”.

This {Tħẽ} enormous commitment {Honthi} of this person along with this invaluable ongoing practice, slowly but surely advise and instruct oneself about the effects of attachments and the value of “Kalyana Dhamma”.

Thus, this person knows that as slaves of craving through attachments, all living beings do not know where they are blindly heading for in their lives. There does only one truth exists in this universe and it is nothing other than the “Four Noble Truths”, and this noble person firmly teaches oneself.

Since this person has eliminated significant amount of sorrow and lamentation by promoting righteous practice, enables to develop that will-power to do away with such journeys that brought

unsatisfied outcomes in the past.

Thereby, that awareness or “Viñgñāna” {feeling the feelings} tends to fade away gradually from the system of that person quite well and enables to progressively gain the supreme noble intelligence.

This noble self-intelligence of this diligent and clever {Kiñgchāpi} person, develops quite strongly {Bhusappamaththā} until it reaches its peak.

Hence sees and becomes aware of the reality of the eighth stage {Bhavaṅ} and it doesn’t {Na} exist in this very life {Tħẽ} and

has only seven existences. Why?

Once that oneself reaches that eighth stage {Aṭṭahamaṅ} or the stage of Arahanthship, that system will be rejected by the entire universe. Why?

Any attachment & defilement free life is unacceptable to the universe.

As a result of this particular refusal, this noble system certainly able to attain {Ãdiyanthi} the state of “Piri-Niveema” [complete calmness] now to leave this universe forever by transmitting or spreading that

embedded spiritual power of the system to the universe.

Thereby {Idampi} the continually growing traits of a monk {Saṅghe} become a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} and such virtues are recognised & appreciated {Paṇīthaṅ} by oneself.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

10.  Sahāva’ssa Dassana Sampadāya Tayassu Dhammā Jahithā Bhavanthi Sakkāya Diṭṭhi, Vichikichchithañcha Seīlabbathaṅ Vā’pi, Yadatthi Kiñgchi Chatūhapāyehi Cha Vippamuththo Cha Chābhi Thānāni Abhabbo Kāthuṅ

Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

Living is nothing but moving from present awareness to the next and so on, and those awarenesses do not prop up or come out suddenly.

It is necessary to have a process of someone to entangle and interact with something of this world to bring about such awarenesses or feelings.

Every here and now, the behavioural format of this humanistic system changes {Bhavanthi} physically & emotionally due to these awarenesses.

Although it is not visibly known to laymen,

the nobly human system with judgmatical invisible powers of

“Inherited Intellectual observable potential” or in terms of the Buddha,

“Yathā Bhuthaṅ Gnaāña Dassanaṅ”, can observe them easily.

As a result of being adhering to the instructions provided so far in this Suthra, that “Inherited Intellectual observable potential”

ability {Sampadāya} of this person activates quite efficiently & effectively

{Sahāva’ssa} and therefore, now able to see & examine {Dassana} the reasons behind for such changes.

That ability of seeing things as they are, enables this person to realise that the life proceeds from one awareness to another, and thereby,

this entire system undergoes {Jahithā} changes {Bhavanthi} physically and emotionally together.

Furthermore, detects that the cause for such change is to do with the higher internal speeds {Dhammā} generated through thoughts produced due to strong attachments on various {Tayassu} figurines of the worldly sources.

If that undertaking is allowed to proceed the following outcomes are eminent. Therefore, that know how, is utilises to its maximum to prevent and refrain {Vippamuththo} one’s own system from the following hurtful developments, and they are directly related to

“Dasa Sanyojana” [Ten Fetters as indicated in texts].

The “Sakkāya-Ditti” is the first element of “Dasa Sanyojana” and the rest of them are Vichikichchā, Sīlabbatha-Parāmāsa, Kāma-Rāga, Patiga, Rūpa-Rāga, Arūpa-Rāga, Māna, Uddhachcha and Avijjā and their combined effects are as follows:

• Sakkāya-Ditti – The second word “Ditti” implies what a person intends to do or feel like doing with worldly objects or possessions,

once they are sighted and perceived through one or more senses. If someone believes that happiness could be achieved by entangling and strongly attaching with worldly objects, then that particular view

is termed as Sakkāya-Ditti. Since this ignorant view misleads the life towards bleakness and sorrowfulness.

It is also termed as unrighteous view or unethical view;

• Vichikichchā – Is a distrust or doubt that prevails in the inner system of a person until that intention produced through Sakkāya-Ditti is fully materialised. Furthermore, such uncertainty disturbs the entire

humanistic system of that person physically & emotionally, whereby that life becomes full of confusion & suspicion;

• Sīlabbatha-Parāmāsa – It is displaying a fake calmness by means of false and forged facial expressions or any other means of behaviour on one hand, and utilising cunning & shrewd strategies by a person on

the other, until those intended expectations emerged due to Sakkāya-Ditti is fulfilled successfully according to the wish. In other words, this particular person deliberately hides real & genuine emotions sparkling in the system to make sure such expectations are met by any means;

• Kāma-Rāga – Repetitively performing the first three blended elements of Dasa Sanyojana, termly Sakkāya-Ditti, Vichikichchā and Sīlabbatha-Parāmāsa, individually as well as collectively favour

that desire of the intention to erupt strongly in the inner system.

Once again that repetitive step by step process is promoted, until those intended expectations are contented by gaining the anticipated outcomes satisfactorily.

This particular repetitive process is termed as Kāma-Rāga;

• Patiga – The minuscules of a humanistic system endure considerable disorder, such as turbulent and vibrative shaking with a significant

speed due to the escalation of Kāma-Rāga, and that tension allows to buildup & encroach anger into the system. This particular transformation of Kāma-Rāga into anger is termed as Patiga, and the driving force of Kāma-Rāga towards Patiga is Sakkāya-Ditti;

• Rūpa-Rāga – These Kāma-Rāga and Patiga combined together and repetitively recall Upadana Rupa [discussed above under the elements of a thought] of those worldly objects responsible for

providing the intentions of expectations.

Whilst that recalling process is taking place, the rate of Upadana Rupa running towards one or more senses of the humanistic system increases tremendously.

This particular behavioural pattern of the inner system of a person is termed as Rūpa-Rāga;

• Arūpa-Rāga – Since these Upadana Rupa are fake, fictitious as well as impermanent, that process of Rūpa-Rāga could not maintain its

flow continuously, rather intermittently, whilst approaching and leaving the six senses of a humanistic system.

This particular process of such fake Upadana Rupa, leaving out of the inner system through its six senses is termed as Arūpa-Rāga.

It clearly indicates that both processes of Rūpa-Rāga and Arūpa-Rāga are respectively, approaching and leaving away from the six senses independently rather simultaneously;

• Māna – This process of Rūpa-Rāga and Arūpa-Rāga produces a significant rate of speed of Upadana Rupa with a considerable

magnitude in the humanistic system.

That combined physical & emotional feelings related to that particular magnitude of the speed is termed as Māna.

Furthermore, people are compelled to excessively exhibit their abilities, achievements, possessions, etc., due to such Māna,

to boost and expose their pride at a very high level towards others;

• Uddhachcha – The actions, verbal communications and the thinking pattern of a person vary according to the exacerbate aggravation of

Māna, quite dreadfully. Once that behavioural pattern of a humanistic system becomes uncontrollable and reaches beyond its managerial level due to Māna, then that uncompromising, stubborn and unbending state of the human system is termed as Uddhachcha;

• Avijjā – Although the above-described interrelated elements of

“Dasa Sanyojana”, occur with no warnings,

they bring some sort of a temporary happiness to some.

That temporary happiness blinds the righteous view [opposite of Sakkāya-Ditti] of that person quite drastically and that damage is quite serious and consequential.

Which means, although the inner system relies on attachments towards worldly objects to bring about happiness, the reality of that belief is totally invisible & fake. Therefore, their final results or outcomes are bleak and sorrowful to the entire life.

The blind faith that insists the happiness is only available through outside worldly objects, situations, etc., is termed as Avijjā or ignorance to detect the real truth.

Therefore, that faith on Avijjā always invites more expectations with intentions to make that human system downhearted, miserable and depressed.

That means the main function of Avijjā is nothing but to search & collect Upadana Rŭpa through Sakkāya-Ditti and bring about physically & emotionally sorrowful, disastrous living conditions throughout this life to this calm loving living.

Furthermore, aforementioned process of “Dasa Sanyojana” commencing from the Sakkāya-Ditti {Sakkāya Diṭṭhi}, Vichikichchā {Vichikichchitañcha} and Sīlabbatha-Parāmāsa

{Seīlabbathaṅ Vā’pi}, etc., indicated in the above verse of this Suthra, eventually brings enormous sufferings to a life through

“Patichcha Samuppado” [termed in most texts as Dependent Origination and also cause & effect process] which begins with the last item of

“Dasa Sanyojana” namely, Avijjā.

Such sufferings could be unfolded by {Cha} born as beings of four categories {Chatūhapāyehi} with no legs, two, four and multiple legs. With the intention of liberating {Abhabbo} the system from the above indicated changes this noble person does not hesitate {Kāthuṅ} to wipe out or exterminate {Thānāni} the damaging effects of six {Cha} senses.

They are generally meant to act as thought producing organisations {Chābhi}. Therefore, this noble person would certainly be able to inactivate the effects of the last two elements of a thought namely, “Saṅkhāra” and “Vijñāna”. Those two items of a thought are responsible

for allowing the human beings to suffer tremendously.

Thus, {Idampi} the continually growing qualities of a monk {Saṅghe} become a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} and such

virtues are recognised & appreciated {Paṇīthaṅ} by oneself.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

11.  Kiñgchā’pi So Kammaṅ Karothi Pāpakaṅ Kāyena Vāchā Uda Chethasā Vā Abhabbo So Thassa Paṭichchādāya Abhabbathā Diṭṭhapadassa Vuththā Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

Now this meritorious & praiseworthy person has developed all the necessary skills to recognise the unwholesome actions {Kammaṅ} and their consequences. What are they? Carrying out any action against impartiality or “Majjimapatipada” is said to be unwholesome and

they bring the system into disarray.

The previously involved unwholesome {Pāpakaṅ} actions {Kāyena}, unwholesome speech with various words {Vāchā} and {Uda} sorrowful thoughts {Chethasā Vā} with fluctuating speeds have been restrained.

Thus, restricted {Karothi} such changes, that could take place in the entire humanistic system physically & emotionally,

by this noble person {Kiñgchā’pi So} with ease.

Since {So} this person {Thassa} has come to know the influence of the environment towards one’s own system, does not behave in a way allowing {Paṭichchādāya} one’s system to undergo changes {Abhabbo}.

That enables this noble person to realise through appraisal to

see or observe {Diṭṭhapadassa} that the system has overcome {Vuththā} such sorrowful & unbearable changes {Abhabbathā}.

Thereby {Idampi} the continually growing traits of a monk {Saṅghe} become a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} and such virtues are recognised & appreciated {Paṇīthaṅ} by oneself.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

12.  Vanappagubbe Yathā Phussi Thagge Gimhānamāse Paṭhamasmiṅ Gimhe Tathūpamaṅ Dhammavaraṅ Adesayi

Nibbāṇagāmiṅ Paramaṅ Hithāya Idampi Buddhè Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

As we all know, all of a sudden flower {Phussi} won’t blossom in the jungle or forest {Vanappagubbe}, however, such blossoming

occurs {Thagge} according {Yathā} to a particular sequential pattern of events in the environment.

During the hot summer {Gimhānamāse} such events do not occur because that earth surface or plane {Paṭhamasmiṅ} is excessively hot and

fiery {Gimhe}. Just as a flower bloom in a forest, if a person inclines {Adesayi} and adheres to the policy of neutrality or impartiality [Majjima Patipada] then only the entire system of that individual {Tathūpamaṅ} becomes extremely {Hithāya} calm.

Thus, this supremely pure and compassionate {Paramaṅ} noble human being is actively leading the life towards

the “Bliss of Nibbana” {Nibbāṇagāmiṅ}.

That is by sustaining neutral speed {Dhammavaraṅ} within the entire system by associating with the following

“Seven Factors of Enlightenment”.

That is also termed as “Saptha Bojjanga Dhamma” it means, seven {Saptha} components related to noble intellectuality {Bojjanga} promoted to maintain neutrality by containing neutral speed {Dhamma}

promoting concepts within, and they are:

• Sathi Saṅbojjanga – If comfort brings to the system from

“Meththa”, then that person realises one’s system operates impartially, and that is said to be “Sathi”;

• Dhamma Vichaya Saṅbojjanga – Since the system operates impartially & neutrally, nothing is contained in the system of this

person to produce high speeds within as in the past, then that state of the system is said to be “Dhamma Vichaya”;

• Viriya Saṅbojjanga – That ability as well as capability acquired, only through a skill development exercise, by a person to sustain “Sathi”

as well as “Dhamma Vichaya” within is said to be “Viriya”;

• Peīthi Saṅbojjanga – As a result of promoting “Viriya”, if a person becomes very pleased with the outcomes of this practice and that is said to be “Peīthi”. The attachments towards worldly sources reduce tremendously due to such gain. Furthermore, all living beings were

searching to experience such a pleasing state, in their lives over a long period of time as well as in the previous lives;

• Passadhi Saṅbojjanga – The process of the system doesn’t attach & react with worldly sources positively or negatively as in the past

through one’s six senses now. Thereby, the particles of the system do not change through “Chathu Dhathu” to bring about disturbing outcomes and that is said to be “Passadhi”. It also prevents the suffering of the system from hurtful thoughts through “Viñgñāna”;

• Samādhi Saṅbojjanga – Actions of the systems are free from strong attachments, and have the potential to associate with anything in a

relaxed and peaceful manner. Now this system is free from attractions & retractions and thus, it can be carried out actions without creating vibrations within and that ability is said to be Samādhi.

Since this person realises the life is moving along the noble path towards serenity, now state of the system is like an

undisturbed mass of still water mass and;

• Upekkha Saṅbojjanga – This person does not expect any comfort from the external sources through the present actions.

Thus, the current actions are taking place quite smoothly and calmly. However, those services providing duties for the comfort of others, would continue. This is due to negligible amount of internal momentum or uneasy speed within. Even serves the others with no expectation, never let the them know about it. Reason for such outcome is that the system is completely free from expectations. Such absence of any expectation whatsoever is termed as “Upekkha”.

Thereby {Idampi} that person recognises that intuition as the highest state of noble intellectuality {Buddhè} that a human being could ever experience in this planet.

It brings the illustrative soothing energy like a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} of equanimity {Paṇīthaṅ} to that person’s

own system as well as others.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

13.  Varo Varagññū Varado Varā Haro Anuththaro Dhamma Varaṅ Adesayi Idampi Buddhè Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

As a result of pragmatically adhering to the instructions of this Suthra, this person who has freed the system from all hurtful situations, such as actions, speech & thoughts, is confidently prepared to

promote {Varā} the calmness within.

Thereby, this intellectually & nobly sound person is now living the life with supremely distinguished {Anuththaro} and disturb free

neutral speed {Dhamma}, which has now {Varaṅ} been steadily induced {Adesayi} in that system.

Such calmful living of this person allows to completely move away {Haro} from the hurtful situation {Varado} towards hurt free situation of the entire system. Thereby, this nobly supreme person possessing qualities of “Manussānaṅ” is awarded {Varo} with a reward {Varagññū} to command the direction of the journey of this very life towards

the unparallel supreme “Bliss of Nibbana”.

Thereby {Idampi} this person cherishes the competency of that intuition as the highest noble state of wisdom {Buddhè} that a human could ever experience in this planet and therefore it brings brightly illuminative

gem {Rathanaṅ} of equanimity {Paṇīthaṅ} to that person’s own system.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

14.  Keyhīṇaṅ Purāṇaṅ Navaṅ Natthi Sam Bhavaṅ Vi Raththa Chiththā Ãyathike Bhavasmiṅ

Tħẽ Keyhīṇa Bījā Avirūḷbhich Chandā Nibbanthi Dhīrā Yathāyaṅ Padīpo Idampi Saṅghe Rathanaṅ Paṇīthaṅ Ethena Sachchena Suvaththi Hothu

As in the past {Purāṇaṅ}, now the entire system of this noble person is not {Natthi} undergoing various {Sam} physical or emotional

changes {Bhavaṅ}. This is because presently the nine {Navaṅ} outlets of the physical body namely, two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, tongue, body and the brain are performing neutrally towards the signals of the figurines of omens of the worldly possessions.

Therefore, such changes in the system are completely cleared {Keyhīṇaṅ}.

Furthermore, the process of this noble person has no {Vi} tendency to produce thoughts {Chiththā} of burning sensations {Raththa} anymore.

Thus, the person {Tħẽ} who has completely depleted {Keyhīṇa} such changes in the system by controlling {Bhavasmiṅ} the senses {Ãyathike} of the system, doesn’t show even slight {Bījā} tendency {Avirūḷbhi} towards {Chandā} the worldly sources either positively or negatively.

This extremely calm {Nibbanthi}, wise, clever and noble {Dhīrā} person has now become a full-fledged or matured “Saṅgha” and possesses the

following qualities namely, Viyaktha, Vineetha, Vishāradha, Bahusrutha, Dhamma Dhara and Dhammanu Dhamma Patipanna, as spelled out in the “Saṅgha Sobenthi Suthra”

by the Omniscient Buddha and they are:

• Life is totally devoted to do away with hunting the worldly sources for happiness. Such ability is acquired through continuous

investigation of one’s own process physically & emotionally, and that potential is said to be “Viyaktha” {Eloquent};

• Able to control one’s own nine outlets of the system quite effectively by ignoring likings & dislikings towards worldly sources, and thereby

this person is able to stabilise calmness within and that ability is said to be “Vineetha” {Politeness};

• Thereby, intelligent enough to become skilful with calmful righteous attitudes. It doesn’t mean that this person is skillful & educated

enough to know everything of the external world situations, instead, thoroughly equipped with the skills to save own life from fearful sufferings, and that is said to be “Vishāradha” {Scholarly};

• Able to utilize such skills to free the world, as well as free from the world. Knows all the techniques to free oneself from the fake illusive

figurines that could get consolidated within. Thereby, get an opportunity to effectively & efficiently liberate this process of the system from unsatisfactory & sorrowful cycle of re-becoming or hurtful changes and that is “Bahusrutha” {Intellectualistic};

• Totally living with seven factors of enlightenment leading to impartiality and able to continually maintain calmness by sustaining neutral speed within, and such noble ability is “Dhamma Dhara”

{association of calmful neutral speed}; and

• True follower of the method spelled out in

“Seven Factors of Enlightenment”, commencing from Sathi [internal peace through “Meththa”] and ending at Upekkhā [serenity & equanimity] to gain the eternal peace & calmness.

That quality is “Dhammanu Dhamma Patipanna” {Life fully devoted to tranquillity}. Therefore, this {Idampi} Supreme Noble Being {Saṅghe} never {Yathāyaṅ} attempts to harm others intentionally or otherwise.

Thereby, effortlessly spreads {Paṇīthaṅ} compassionate generosity

{Padīpo} developed through the above qualities gained through the instructions of this Suthra and live the life with illuminative soothing energy, like a brightly illuminative gem {Rathanaṅ} dispensing

its’ light to all beings in the universe.

Thus, {Ethena} the competences, skills and confidence acquired through trustworthy and honest {Sachchena} practices, with the help of invaluable instructions, would become the only reason {Hothu} to heal {Suvaththi} the systems of all humans from such fearful situations.

15.  Yānīdha Bhūthāni Samāgathāni Bhummāni Vā Yāniva Anthalikkhe Tathāgathaṅ Deva Manussa Pūjithaṅ Buddhaṅ Namassāma Suvaththi Hothu

As explained in the previous parts, hurtful thoughts are repetitively arising through Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, in all human systems.

Thereby, “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Bhūthāni}, or “Chathu Dhathu”

always dominating {Yānīdha} the humanistic system.

As a result of that particular occurrence, a massive hurtful energy mass is released, from the core or the interior {Bhummāni Vā} of that person, to an {Yāniva} unimaginable distance {Anthalikkhe} of the universe

in the form of a spherical of waves at various speeds in all directions.

To control {Deva} and overcome such fearful & hurtful actions on everyone, it is quite imperative to develop & enhance the

status {Tathāgathaṅ} of inherited intellectual nobility {Buddha} to move one’s own process towards that venerable state {Pūjithaṅ} or “Manussānaṅ” {Manussa}.

To carry out above said task, it is necessary to enhance intellectuality {Buddha} and develop necessary effectively with great assurance & determination.

The following information provided by this extraordinary Suthra must be utilized with great confidence to fulfil that particular task successfully:

Involve in regularly promoting “Meththa” with the help of

“Four Brahma Vihara” consists of four elements of Meththa, Karuna, Muditha and Upekkha. In addition to it establish Seven Factors of Enlightenment, termed by the Buddha as “Saptha Bojjanga Dhamma”, within to gain the elite benefits to move the entire humanistic system towards “Upekkha” which enables to achieve the “Bliss of Nibbana”.

Thus, it leads to attain noble qualities known as “Buddhaṅ” and thus, that noble oneself would admire & respect that success achieved

by adoring & worshipping {Namassāma} that methodology of teachings, allowed {Hothu} to become nobly healthy {Suvaththi} & totally calmful.

16.  Yānīdha Bhūthāni Samāgathāni Bhummāni Vā Yāniva Anthalikkhe Tathāgathaṅ Deva Manussa Pūjithaṅ

Dhammaṅ Namassāma Suvaththi Hothu

As explained in the previous parts, hurtful thoughts are repetitively arising through Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, in all human systems.

Thereby, “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Bhūthāni}, or “Chathu Dhathu”

always dominating {Yānīdha} the humanistic system.

As a result of that particular occurrence, a massive hurtful energy mass  is released, from the core or the interior {Bhummāni Vā} of that person, to an {Yāniva} unimaginable distance {Anthalikkhe} of the universe

in the form of a spherical of waves at various speeds in all directions.

To control {Deva} and overcome such fearful & hurtful actions on everyone, it is quite imperative to maintain & sustain the

state {Tathāgathaṅ} of inherited neutral rate of speed {Dhamma} by purifying the entire system from

contaminated containments to move one’s own process towards that venerable state {Pūjithaṅ} or “Manussānaṅ” {Manussa}.

To carry out the above said task to bring about a calmful system which truly sustaining neutral speed in all occasions in one’s own system

the information provided by this extraordinary Suthra must be utilized with great confidence.

That information includes the following:

Awakening of Seela, Samadhi and Paññā through the renowned

“Four Noble Truths”.

Here “Seela” means freeing the system from the hurtful influences of the various sources of the world by totally controlling one’s six senses.

Thereby, the system can lightly associate with “kāāma” without disturbing the entire humanistic system either physically or emotionally and that is “Samadhi”.

Through such practices of “Seela” and “Samadhi” the potential that develops to assess the true nature of the cause of suffering in life and to take appropriate decisions to overcome such sufferings, known as “Paññā”.

Such noble qualities certainly do not allow repetitive release of massive hurtful energy mass into the universe in the form of a spherical of waves at various speeds in all directions by means of Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, and harm the beings in the universe.

Thereby, it is quite possible to develop skills to sustain & stabilise harmonious neutral speed {Dhammaṅ} within the system and

set the entire system in peace.

As a result of such noble achievements this person would admire & respect that success achieved by worshipping {Namassāma} that methodology of teachings, allowed {Hothu} to become nobly healthy {Suvaththi} through that calmful speed.

17.  Yānīdha Bhūthāni Samāgathāni Bhummāni Vā Yāniva Anthalikkhe Tathāgathaṅ Deva Manussa Pūjithaṅ Saṅghaṅ Namassāma Suvaththi Hothu

As explained in the previous parts, hurtful thoughts are repetitively arising through Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, in all human systems.

Thereby, “Sathara Maha Bõōtha” {Bhūthāni}, or “Chathu Dhathu”

always dominating {Yānīdha} the humanistic system.

As a result of that particular occurrence, a massive hurtful energy mass  is released, from the core or the interior {Bhummāni Vā} of that person, to an {Yāniva} unimaginable distance {Anthalikkhe} of the universe

in the form of a spherical of waves at various speeds in all directions.

As indicated above, after adhering & moving along the direction instructed in this Suthra, this noble person has now well controlled {Deva} that situation of releasing hurtful energy mass towards the universe through Lõbha, Dõsha and Mõha, by applying the “Four Brahma Vihara”,

the “Saptha Bojjanga Dhamma” and also, the Eight Stages of Arahanth Path.

Through such a precious life, this noble person releases to the universe soothing energies and they are beneficial to all kinds of living beings.

A life with no strong intentions is ready to associate with

“Meththa” & “Upekkha”.

Thereby able to reduce & free the system of oneself from its internal excessive speeds by minimizing attachments towards the

figurines of omens of worldly sources.

Thus, the expected free system is prepared to serve the outside world freely.

That ongoing service is inherited with this noble person’s life, who possesses invaluable qualities spelled out in the “Saṅgha Sobenthi Suthra”, as said above.

Thereby, eventually achieve the noble {Pūjithaṅ} state {Tathāgathaṅ} of

“Manussānaṅ” {Manussa} or unparallel behavioural state of a human.

Finally, this extraordinary noble person is leading the life with great determination and also with overconfident {Hothu} to bring about

everlasting calmness {Suvaththi} to one’s own humanistic system.

To do so, this noble person continually admires, respects and worships {Namassāma} the invincible and unbeatable competences, skills and expertise gained through the Buddha {Buddhaṅ},

the Dhamma {Dhammaṅ} and the Saṅgha {Saṅghaṅ}, which are extensively & intensively examined & elaborated in this unique Suthra.

Since the Omniscient Buddha possesses all the above said noble competences, skills and expertise, the Buddha reiterated that we all can enhance them, if we are prepared to move along that

instructed path with courage & determination.

Once a person begins to develop such competences, skills and expertise, as much as that oneself could, then the remaining or lacking part gradually becomes possible and that enthusiastic commitment termed as “Viriya” Since nothing could be gained by wishing, the Omniscient Buddha requested to pragmatically utilise this unique method spelled out

in this Suthra to obtain such “Viriya”.

——The End of the Rathana Suthra——

Mahã Maṅgala Suthra

Introduction

This Suthra is related to an incident where a well self-controlled person came to see the Omniscient Buddha after the midnight of that day

to bring about a question.

That question was pertaining to his own welfare with a view to obtain a practical answer to reach the highest level of life known as “Supreme Bliss of Nibbana” by overcoming a particular obstruction going on in his system.

That question is as follows:

Why am I failing to achieve that highest level of a life prescribed as “Supreme Bliss of Nibbana”,

after controlling my own system to such a great & considerable extent, although my self-pride of that achievement is stabilised in the interior?

That “practically remarkable and well worthy of being attentive to” answer provided with ten verses in this Suthra,

by the Omniscient Buddha,

to that significantly self-controlled unknown person, is extensively illustrated in the following parts:

The writers believe that, at this stage the readers of this text have a good understanding about the terms stated and explained in

“Bold Letters” of Magadhi Language.

Once, this self-pride or “Māna” reaches its peak, known as “Uddhachcha”

that person is compelled to undergo the effects of “Avijjā” blindly.

The “Māna”, “Uddhachcha” and “Avijjā” are the last three elements of “Dasa Sanyojana” or “Ten Fetters” and that “Avijjā” is the very first part of “Patichcha Samuppado” or “Dependent Origination”

which brings enormous suffering to human system.

To prevent that person who raised that question from falling onto that “Avijjā”, according to this Suthra, the Buddha insisted to refrain from associating with “Dasa Papa Kamma” [Ten Unwholesome Actions] and collaborate with the “Dasa Pāramītha” [Ten Perfections]

to improve the compassionate impartiality within.

The Buddha also reminded this person, to realise that

all thoughts on attachments, including the self-pride also originated, from the fake & fictitious images of omens of the worldly sources and they register in the inner as “Upãdana Rŭpa”.

Therefore, always remember that the system is unnecessarily undergoing obstructions & constraints through such fake images or “Upãdana Rŭpa”.

To overcome the above situations, adhere to the practices to improve the impartiality or “Upekkha” through “Dasa Pāramītha”.

It is also necessary to regularly involved in a skill development program, especially to control six senses from hurtful actions to keep calmness within.

At the inception to maintain such practices, the Buddha insisted to begin with treating one’s close relatives equally by being impartial and unbiased.

Always rely on the path of the “Dasa Punya Kamma” or

“Ten Wholesome Actions” to being with that flow of practice effectively towards equanimity or serenity, until the influences and consequences of attachments on “Upãdana Rŭpa” are well controlled.

Since the above-mentioned instructions enable to control one’s own system considerably, this person effortlessly tends to

respect, admire and even to worship these instructions.

In addition to that, one’s own system listens to the benefits of those invaluable instructions every here and now, with enormous self-confidence.

After living the life according to the directions & tasks provided above, this person would realise that one’s entire system is functioning

in a peaceful and compassionate manner.

That means the system is totally free from the process of attachments on achievements which used to produce various disturbing abnormal speeds in the interior.

To support such living, one’s own system speaks about those directions and their commitments at the appropriate period of time with oneself.

Now, it seems to be that the previous life performances of this compassionate person have changed quite appreciably by being a noble person and able to obtain the best of the “Four Noble Truths” related to the cause of fearful sufferings.

Thereby, this person is now surely inheriting the eternal calmness within the entire system, by controlling the excessive speeds and maintaining a neutral speed within.

Now this person’s six senses are refraining from accompanying the fake & fictitious figurines of the worldly sources to produce & register “Upãdana Rŭpa” in the interior.

Therefore, the body parts of the system of this person do not undergo “Chathu Dhathu” or compression, squeezing, warming up or vibrations as occurred in the past.

Living the life according to the guidance of the Omniscient Buddha, this particular process of the system doesn’t change its conduct

due to the influence of the eight vicissitudes of the outside world as well.

Being honestly and continually involving & adhering to the instructions, of this Suthra, preached by the Omniscient Buddha,

this person has now become invincible by freeing the system from all ties.

There is no other opportunity in this life as great as to be in that situation, and therefore, now it is possible for this noble person to live the life in this manner or leave this life at any time by dispersing the inherited

calm energy to the universe in a very peaceful manner.

Let us now examine the instructions forwarded to the mankind by the Omniscient Buddha through Mahã Maṅgala Suthra, in detail to prevent the self-pride or self-esteem emerging

due to spiritual or other achievements.

Mahã Maṅgala Suthra

Evaṅ May Suthaṅ Ekaṅ Samayaṅ Bhagavā Sāvaththiyaṅ Viharathi Jethavane Anāthapiṇḍikassa Ārāme.

Atha kho Aññatharā Devathā Abhikkantāya Raththiyā Abhikkanthavaṇṇā Kevalakappaṅ Jethavanaṅ Obhāsethvā Yëna Bhagavā Thenupasaṅkami Upasaṅkamithvā Bhagavanthaṅ Abhivādethvā Ekamanthaṅ Aṭṭhāsi. Ekamanthaṅ Thithā Khõ Sā Devathā Bhagavantaṅ Gāthāya Ajjhabhāsi.

Thus, I heard {Evaṅ May Suthaṅ}: On one occasion {Ekaṅ Samayaṅ}, the Omniscient Buddha {Bhagavā} was dwelling {Viharathi} in a  village known as Sāvaththi {Sāvaththiyaṅ} of the Jethavana {Jethavane} at Anāthapiṇḍika’s {Anāthapiṇḍikassa} Monastery {Ārāme}.

During that time {Atha kho}, name unknown {Aññatharā}, literally well controlled Monk {Devathā}, who was bearing {Kevalakappaṅ} that controlling potential by brightening {Obhāsethvā} that potential in the vicinity of “Jethavanaṅ”, approached {Thenupasaṅkami} in that

night {Abhikkantāya Raththiyā} very close to {Upasaṅkamithvā} the place {Yëna} were the Blessed One {Bhagavanthaṅ} was at, and respectfully {Abhivādethvā} stood {Ekamanthaṅ} to one side {Aṭṭhāsi}.

This respectfully sat Monk {Devathā} raised {Thithā Khõ Sā} a question to the Blessed One {Bhagavantaṅ} via the following verse {Gāthāya}.

1.  Bahū Devā Manussā Cha – Maṅgalāni Achinthayuṅ Ākaṅkha Mānā Soththānaṅ – Brūhi Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

How do {Brūhi} I become a neutrally blissful {Maṅgala}, eternally {Achinthayuṅ} very well relieved from all impurities,

as well as unbiasedly optimistic {Maṅgalāni} supreme {Muththamaṅ} sublime human being {Manussā Cha}, by eliminating {Soththānaṅ} those obstructive {Ākaṅkha} levels of overwhelming self-pride {Mānā}, self-esteem and overconfidence, that incurred especially {Bahū} due to being a well-controlled {Devā} person of my own process of this very life?

The Buddha preached the following verses to answer his question:

• Asēvanā Cha Bālānaṅ – Paṅḍithānañ Cha Sēvanā Pūjā Cha Pūjanīyānaṅ – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ Do not associate {Asēvanā Cha} with actions which bring

hurtful {Bālānaṅ} outcomes or consequences to the process of the system.

Such actions are “Dasa Pāpa Kamma”, [Ten Unwholesome Actions],

“Pancha Neewarana Dhamma” [Five Barriers Obstructing Calmness], etc., Do associate {Sēvanā} with actions which bring calmful benefits.

They are “Dasa Punya Kamma” [Ten actions for harmonious living] and “Dasa Pāramītha” [Ten Stage Noble Path Towards Tranquillity] which promote intellectuality to enhance tranquillity {Paṅḍithānañ Cha}.

That is to be done by obliging {Pūjā Cha} and proffering {Pūjanīyānaṅ} one’s own process of life towards the above-described approach.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala} that a person could achieve in this life.

3.  Pathi Rūpa Dēsavā Sōcha – Pubbē Cha Katha Puñgñathā Aththa Sammā Paṇēīdhi Cha – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

If one responds {Pathi} and associates {Dēsavā} with the fake images or “Upãdana Rŭpa” created within, from the figurines of omens of the worldly sources, then that person tends to undergo

sorrowfulness {Sōcha} with fearful sufferings.

Practice regularly, to refrain {Katha} from repetitive ramming on prevailing thoughts and also to reduce their levels of speeds {Dhamma} by

utilizing noble intellectuality {Puñgñathā} which had already been gained to an ample extent in the past {Pubbē Cha} by controlling the own system.

By doing so, oneself would be able to maintain, inviting as well as rewarding {Paṇēīdhi Cha} the wholesome actions in the system.

Such practices precisely, certainly and truly {Sammā} allow to sustain calmness {Aththa} within by reassuring neutral speeds in the system.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala} that a person could achieve in this life.

4. Bāhu Sachchañ Cha Sippañ Cha – Vinayo Cha Susikkhitho Subhāsithā Cha Yā Vāchā – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

Discusses & examines the most {Bāhu} relevant techniques {Sippañ Cha} and utilise them truthfully {Sachchañ Cha} to develop a

skill clarified above by oneself.

Thereby, one’s self-discipline {Vinayo Cha} becomes a securing {Susikkhito} factor. Thus, that person feels that no other

discussions {Yā Vāchā} could assist to develop one’s noble intelligence through vivid words {Subhāsithā Cha} like them.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala} that a person could achieve in this life.

5.  Māthāpithū Upaṭṭhānaṅ – Puththadārassa Saṅgaho Ānākulā Cha Kammanthā – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

In order to improve the life style according to the skill development method, indicated above, in the very first instance one must adhere to the following: When one reminds {Upaṭṭhānaṅ} the mother or the father {Māthāpithū}, and also recalls {Saṅgaho} the children {Puththadārassa}, siblings, relatives, friends, etc., utilize the method of impartiality or neutrality

to reduce & ease the attachments towards them.

To make that task easy, invariably realise that such views are contained in the interior or the conscious as fake & fictitious figurines as “Upãdana Rŭpa”.

In such involvements {Kammanthā} also make sure to refrain from treating them by grouping them into various categories {Anākulā Cha}. That observation would enable to overcome strong attachments on them.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ}superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala}that a person could achieve in this life.

6.  Dānañ Cha Dhamma Chariyā Cha – Ñāthakānañ Cha Saṅgaho Āna Vajjāni Kammāni – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

To enhance and maintain the equanimity in the entire system, implement a self-reliance approach {Chariyā Cha} by being

a prominent supporter and a firm & inflexible habitual practitioner, to give up {Dānañ Cha} the contaminant containments in the interior.

Do not treat {Saṅgaho} anyone as close associates {Ñāthakānañ Cha}, to overcome the disturbing speeds {Dhamma} that could prop up at once, as a result of introducing a new practice to the system not skilled before.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ}superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala}that a person could achieve in this life.

7.  Ārathi Virathi Pāpā – Majjapānā Cha Sañgñamo Appamādo Cha Dhammesu – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

The containments {Pāpā} of repetitively pondering on achievements, brings burning sensations to the system from warmth irritations {Ārathi}.

To eradicate {Virathi} such hurtful consequences resulting through the six senses, by being extremely strong elements producing fictitious images from the figurines of the worldly possessions,

one must be in touch as well as accompanying with {Saññamo} the impartiality or tranquillity {Majjapānā Cha}.

By allowing the system to associate with impartiality with no delay {Appamādo Cha}, enables to maintain neutral speed {Dhammesu} in the system to sustain calmness.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala} that a person could achieve in this life.

8.  Gāaravo Cha Nivātho Cha – Santhuṭṭhī Cha Kathaññuthā Kālena Dhamma Savanaṅ – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

As a result of applying and practicing impartiality, this person is now experiencing enormous restraint & peacefulness {Nivātho Cha} within,  and therefore, respects {Gāaravo Cha} this method with extreme gratitude.

By embracing & endorsing this unique calmful situation {Santhuṭṭhī Cha}, this person engages in speaking {Kathaññuthā} & listening {Savanaṅ} sessions by oneself at appropriate times {Kālena} about the fulfilled achievements pertaining to calmness & peacefulness up to now.

Certainly, such actions enable to secure the system strongly,

by establishing & maintaining neutral speed {Dhamma}of serenity.

Such speaking & listening sessions by oneself are related to the following: What type of a life, I was living then?

How am I now, after adhering to these instructions? etc.,

There is no any other {Ethaṅ}superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala}that a person could achieve in this life.

9.  Khanthī Cha So Vachassathā – Samaṇānañcha Dassanaṅ Kālena Dhamma Sākachchā – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

Now this person is taking steps {So Vasachchathā} to ignore & detach from the figurines of omens of the worldly sources accepted for happiness. That is to, do away with the repetitive attachment towards such figurines, and thereby, that person precisely shows moving along the path {Cha}

to promote and preserve calmness, peace, harmony as well as compassion {Khanthī} in one’s entire system, at all times.

Hence, this person grasps & realises through the six senses {Dassanaṅ} that the entire system is totally nourished with virtues of

morality and righteousness.

Thus, that person becomes a Saṅgha {Samaṇānañcha} with noble qualities.

Since this person has now attained the noble Monkhood, tends to discuss {Sākachchā} with oneself about various speeds {Dhamma} prevailing in that system due to actions, feelings, as well as concepts, as and when required {Kālena} which are common occurrences of this life.

That is carried out with a view to secure neutral speeds in the interior to calm down the entire system considerably.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala}that a person could achieve in this life.

10.  Thapo Cha Brahma Chariyañ Cha – Ariya Sachchāna Dassanaṅ Nibbāṇa Sachcha Kiriyā Cha – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ

Now this particular individual with these noble qualities always promotes calmness & peacefulness {Brahma Chariyañ Cha}

through one’s all day-to-day activities.

The only intention of this virtuous & exemplary person is to promote serenity, and therefore, this life prevails attachment free concepts only. That is: “My living is completely devoted to others goodwill only” Such life does not harm others or oneself and that is “Thapo Cha”.

Furthermore, through this unique & noble life this person would be able to comprehend the true vision {Dassanaṅ} of the “Noble Truth” or absolutely terminable fearful sufferings {Ariya Sachchāna} of this life.

Thereby, this person confirms that undoubtedly {Sachcha Kiriyā Cha}, the “Bliss of Nibbana” {Nibbāṇa} or persistent & ceaseless calmness, can be attained through this particular trustworthy method only.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala}that a person could achieve in this life.

1. Phuṭṭhassa Loka Dhammehi – Ciththaṅ Yassa Na Kampathi Asokaṅ Vi Rajaṅ Khemaṅ – Ethaṅ Maṅgala Muththamaṅ Moreover, all physical parts of the system of this life do not

undergo compression, squeezing, warming up or vibration, as a result of fully bearing and controlling the ongoing circumstance of this very life {Yassa},

described as eight {Phuṭṭhassa} vicissitudes {Loka Dhammehi}.

That means this person’s process of the system has become so strong and therefore, able to manage such eight vicissitudes, termed as,

“Gain & Loss; Power & Powerless; Praise & Blame; & Happy & Sad”, quite comfortably by preserving & applying impartiality towards them.

That helps to maintain one’s own system in peace, by preventing {Na} shocking {Kampathi} thoughts {Ciththaṅ} that could prop up suddenly. Thus, this person’s system is completely free from sorrow {Asokaṅ} now. It is because, that vicious & unpredictable “Kããma” which was ruling and controlling the system in the past, as an Autocratic Ruler,

has now become inactive {Virajaṅ} and ineffective {Khemaṅ} to harm this system any more.

There is no any other {Ethaṅ} superior & unprecedented {Muththamaṅ} reward or award {Maṅgala} that a person could achieve in this life.

12.  Ethādisāni Kathvāna – Sabbaththa Ma’ Parājithā Sabbattha Soththiṅ Gachchanthi

Thaṅ Thesaṅ Maṅgala Muththa Manthi.

It is quite clear that this person has followed the above-mentioned directions {Ethādisāni} and tasks {Kathvāna} quite successfully & duly. Thus, this person has now realised all {Sabbaththa} disturbing actions related to this life and able to restore a natural state in the interior,

by being a non-loser {Ma’ Parājithā}.

That is by maintaining neutral speeds within in all situations of this very life.

Eventually, this person gains enormous strength to live this life by detaching from the worldly possessions used for happiness in the past,

like a lotus flower, grows in mud and blossoms without touching that mud.

That means, although that flower born in mud existing completely away from it.

Since, this person is freed {Soththiṅ} from all {Sabbattha} attachments, the universe has now rejected {Gachchanthi} him or her completely.

Therefore, this supreme being now has the freedom, either to live this life calmly, or to depart from this world at any time with “Blissful of Nibbana”.

That exceptional opportunity to depart {Muththa} from this world at any time, is an incredible, supreme and sovereign {Maṅgala} occasion {Manthi} that a person can preserve in this universe.

That situation can only be equated to an imperishable, deathless or eternal state {Thaṅ Thesaṅ} of departure, doesn’t award by the universe for everyone.

In view of the above, instead of only chanting the words of the Buddha as stated in this entire text, it is much beneficial to all of us,

if the instructions of these Suthras are pragmatically utilized.

—–The End of the Mahã Mangala Suthra ——

*******May you all be happy and safe!!!*******

　　Buddha Practice Association Thesis Writing

　　The Self-Nature Is Not Language or Words, How Can It Be Expressed with Language and Words

　　Using Case Studies from the Śūraṅgama Sutra as Examples

　　Advisor: Director Wang Huaigu

　　Author: Venerable Shi Yinyi

　　March 8, 2025

　　Abstract

　　This paper explores how language and words express “self-nature” in Buddhist scriptures, taking the case studies of “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” and “Rāhula Striking the Bell” from the Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices

　　Śūraṅgama Sutra as examples, analyzing their role in guiding practitioners to recognize self-nature. Self-nature, as a pure, unborn, and undying essence, though transcending language, can be pointed to through techniques such as metaphor, analogy, contrast, symbolism, situational description, logical reasoning, and rhetorical questioning, from concrete phenomena pointing to abstract essence. “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” contrasts the impermanence of the physical body with the unchanging “seeing nature,” revealing its eternal and undying nature; “Rāhula Striking the Bell” reflects the arising and ceasing of sound against the clear “hearing nature,” proving its transcendence over dullness and flux. Language and words, like “the finger pointing to the moon,” through logical analysis and situational guidance, assist practitioners in moving from impermanent phenomena toward recognition of self-nature, playing a transformative role. This study not only demonstrates the multifaceted functions of language in expressing self-nature but also provides new perspectives for future related research.

　　Keywords: Self-Nature, Language and Words, Observing the River to Discern Seeing, Rāhula Striking the Bell, Seeing Nature, Hearing Nature

Chapter One: Introduction

　　In the profound wisdom of Buddhism, “self-nature” is like a radiant pearl, guiding practitioners toward the shore of awakening, stepping toward the path of becoming a Buddha. For Mahayana practitioners, self-nature is the fundamental means of cultivation. The Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices Śūraṅgama Sutra points out that if one does not know the “two kinds of roots”—namely, sentient beings mistakenly taking the clinging mind as self-nature, and forgetting the inherently pure self-nature—cultivation is like cooking sand into rice, even after countless eons, it remains futile and without merit. The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch also clearly states: “The self-nature of Bodhi, originally pure, simply use this mind, directly become a Buddha.” It further says: “Not recognizing the original mind, studying the Dharma is without benefit; if one recognizes their original mind, sees their original nature, they are called a great person, a teacher of humans and gods, a Buddha.” It can be seen that recognizing self-nature is the key to liberation, its importance is self-evident. However, self-nature is pure and true, transcending the scope of expression of language and words, difficult to be completely captured. Despite this, language is not entirely useless. It is like the finger pointing to the moon, though not the moon itself, it can guide the direction, helping people glimpse the truth. Similarly, though language and words are not self-nature, they can serve as a medium, pointing to self-nature, assisting practitioners in realizing its true meaning.

　　To explore how language and words express self-nature, this paper takes the Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices Śūraṅgama Sutra as the basis for analysis, selecting “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” and “Rāhula Striking the Bell” as two case studies, from a Buddhist perspective, exploring how language and words in the sutra, through specific techniques, manifest the characteristics of self-nature, guiding Mahayana practitioners to recognize self-nature.

Chapter Two: Techniques of Language and Words in Guiding Recognition of Self-Nature

　　Though self-nature transcends language, it does not mean we can only remain silent. Language and words, as tools for human understanding and communication, if used appropriately, can play a guiding and pointing function, like a nautical chart guiding a ship to reach the shore. This chapter takes “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” and “Rāhula Striking the Bell” from the Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices Śūraṅgama Sutra as examples, analyzing how language and words, through seven techniques—metaphor, analogy, contrast, symbolism, situational description, logical reasoning, and rhetorical questioning—help practitioners understand self-nature. Among them, “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” reveals the unborn and undying and eternally constant nature of “seeing nature,” “Rāhula Striking the Bell” verifies the transcendence of “hearing nature” over arising and ceasing, both being specific manifestations of self-nature.

1. Metaphor

　　Metaphor is using familiar things to explain abstract concepts. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the Buddha uses the flowing river water as a metaphor for the changes of the physical body, showing its impermanent quality. In “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” the rising and falling of the bell sound is used as a metaphor for the flux of form and sound, laying the groundwork for later exploring the constancy of “hearing nature.”

2. Analogy

　　Analogy is explaining unfamiliar concepts through similarity. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the flowing Ganges River water is analogous to the changes of the physical body, guiding King Prasenajit to recognize the impermanence of the body, preparing for the unchanging “seeing nature.” In “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” the rising and falling of the bell sound is analogous to the impermanence of form and sound, and hearing sound in a dream is analogous to the “hearing nature” not being dull, highlighting its constant clarity.

3. Contrast

　　Contrast is highlighting differences to emphasize characteristics. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the arising and ceasing of the physical body contrast with the unchanging “seeing nature,” the Buddha using “wrinkled” and “not wrinkled” to distinguish change from no change, revealing self-nature’s unchanging and unwrinkled nature. In “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” the presence and absence of sound contrast with the constant “hearing nature,” guiding the distinction between arising-ceasing and true constancy.

4. Symbolism

　　Symbolism is using concrete things to express abstract meanings. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the flowing Ganges River water symbolizes the impermanence of all phenomena. In “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” the arising and ceasing of the bell sound symbolize the flux of form and sound. Also, hearing sound in a dream symbolizes the non-dull characteristic of self-nature, showing that whether in a dream or awake, the “ability to hear” remains clear.

5. Situational Description

　　Situational description provides specific contexts to deepen understanding. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the Buddha designs a scenario for King Prasenajit to recall changes in the physical body, guiding him to perceive the body’s impermanence. In “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” the Buddha designs a scenario of striking the bell, the sound arising and ceasing, repeatedly questioning Ānanda, revealing the difference between sound and hearing nature. The dream scenario of one person sleeping is constructed to make Venerable Ānanda and the assembly understand that hearing nature is not dull.

6. Logical Reasoning

　　Logical reasoning is deriving conclusions from premises. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the Buddha asks the king: The body from age three to sixty-two continuously ages, why does your perception of the Ganges River water always remain “seemingly unchanged”? The king answers, whether at three, thirteen, or sixty-two, his seeing nature of the Ganges River has not changed. Logically, if “seeing nature” depended on time, body, or river water and changed, the perception (seeing) should differ; but the perception has not changed, showing that “seeing nature” shines spiritually alone, not changing with changes in time, body, or river water. Therefore, seeing nature is unchanging.

　　In “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” the Buddha uses the bell sound as an example, arguing that sound has arising and ceasing, while hearing nature is constant. The bell sound arises and then disappears; if hearing nature extinguished with it, when the sound arises again, it should not be heard, but this is not the case, thus hearing nature does not change with the arising and ceasing of sound. Additionally, the Buddha uses “hearing pounding rice sound in a dream” as an example, further explaining that hearing nature is not dull. If hearing nature were dull in sleep, one should not perceive the pounding rice sound in a dream, yet people can still hear, showing that hearing nature remains spiritually clear in dreams. From this, it is deduced that hearing nature is constant and not dull.

7. Rhetorical Questioning

　　Rhetorical questioning provokes reflection to emphasize viewpoints. In “Observing the River to Discern Seeing,” the Buddha asks: “Is your physical body like vajra, eternally constant and undecaying, or does it decay?” This启发 (inspires) King Prasenajit to perceive the body’s impermanence; in “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” “What do you hear? What do you not hear?” points out the distinction between “hearing nature” and sound.

　　The above seven aspects demonstrate the guiding role of language and words in expressing self-nature; the next section will verify their practical application with specific cases.

Chapter Three: Empirical Evidence of Language Expressing Self-Nature in Scriptural Case Studies

　　Self-nature, the origin of all phenomena, is a pure, undefiled, unborn, undying, all-pervading true entity of the Dharma realm. It transcends all distinctions and oppositions, is eternally constant, absolutely equal. It does not increase in the noble, does not decrease in the ordinary. Self-nature is like a four-dimensional solid, filling the void, pervading the Dharma realm. Its aliases are numerous, such as Bodhi, Nirvana, True Suchness, Buddha-Nature, Amala Consciousness, Empty Tathāgatagarbha, Great Perfect Mirror Wisdom, Wondrously Clear True Mind, True Suchness Nature, etc., all pointing to this one essence. Seeing nature, hearing nature, etc., are all one of the countless inherent abilities of self-nature.

　　This chapter takes “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” and “Rāhula Striking the Bell” from the Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices Śūraṅgama Sutra as examples, verifying how language and words point from concrete phenomena to self-nature, guiding practitioners to recognize its unborn, undying, and pure, wondrously constant qualities. Through refining the reasoning process, this chapter will demonstrate how the Buddha gradually unfolds logic, transforming observation at the phenomenal level into profound recognition of self-nature’s essence.

　　1. Observing the River to Discern Seeing

　　In the “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” case study, the Buddha, through a series of dialogues, gradually guides King Prasenajit to recognize the eternal constancy of “seeing nature.” The dialogue begins with a rhetorical question: “Is your physical body like vajra, eternally constant and undecaying, or does it decay?” This question directly points to the essence of the physical body, making King Prasenajit reflect on its changeability.

　　After King Prasenajit answers “ultimately it decays,” the Buddha immediately uses the metaphor “like fire becoming ash” to depict the process of the physical body’s moment-by-moment change, and with subdivisions of time (ten years, a year, a month, a day, even an instant) symbolizes the body’s constant change without a moment’s pause, its impermanent characteristic. This description establishes the foundation for subsequent reasoning: the physical body is a conditioned phenomenon of arising and ceasing, moment by moment arising and ceasing, decaying until it ultimately perishes.

　　Next, the Buddha rhetorically asks: “Also at the time of decay, do you know there is something in your body that does not decay?” This question shifts the focus from the “change” and “decay” of the physical body to the exploration of “unchanging” and “undecaying,” inspiring King Prasenajit to seek something transcending impermanence. To unfold the reasoning, the Buddha introduces a specific scenario, requiring King Prasenajit to recall experiences of observing the Ganges River at ages three, thirteen, and up to sixty-two. King Prasenajit answers: “As at three years old, seemingly unchanged, even now at sixty-two, also without difference.” Here, the Buddha unfolds logic with analogy: If “seeing nature” relied on the physical body, then as the body aged (e.g., eyes dimming, memory declining), its perception should change, such as the Ganges River possibly becoming blurry or hard to discern. If “seeing nature” relied on time, then “seeing nature” should disappear with time; yet, what is it seeing with now? However, King Prasenajit’s answer negates this assumption, his “seeing nature” at different times, different ages, and different river conditions remains unaffected, always clear as before. If “seeing nature” changed with time, body, or river water, then perception (seeing) should differ; yet perception has not changed, this shows “seeing nature” shines spiritually alone, not changing with changes in time, body, or river water.

　　This phenomenon triggers a key question: the Buddha seizes the moment to deepen reasoning with contrast: “You now lament your white hair and wrinkled face, your face surely more wrinkled than in childhood; then when you now observe this Ganges River, compared to your childhood observation of the river, is there youth or old age in that seeing?” King Prasenajit answers: “No, World-Honored One.” Here, the Buddha contrasts the “wrinkling” of the physical body (change) with the “not wrinkling” of the “seeing essence” (unchanging), proposing a logical conclusion: “That which wrinkles is change, that which does not wrinkle is not change; that which changes is subject to decay, that which does not change originally has no arising or ceasing. How could it, within this, be subject to your birth and death?” The reasoning steps are as follows:

　　Premise One: The physical body, due to years, “wrinkles,” “wrinkling” belongs to “change.”

　　Premise Two: The “seeing essence” does not “wrinkle” with the body’s “wrinkling,” “not wrinkling” does not change.

　　Inference: That which “changes” is subject to decay, all conditioned phenomena that “change” are subject to causes and conditions, with birth and death due to causes and conditions; that which “does not change” originally has no arising or ceasing, transcends the birth and death of causes and conditions. This breaks King Prasenajit’s misunderstanding of “body dies, all perishes,” and refutes externalist (e.g., Maskari) views that everything perishes with the physical body.

　　Reasoning up to this point, starting from the impermanence of the physical body, step-by-step proves that the self-nature capable of seeing does not change with the body, does not arise or cease with the body, possessing the characteristic of being unborn and undying, language and words through this logical process closely connect phenomena and essence.

　　2. Rāhula Striking the Bell

　　In the “Rāhula Striking the Bell” case study, the Buddha has Rāhula strike the bell to create alternating scenarios of “sound” and “no sound,” forming a contrast as the starting point for discerning “hearing nature.” The Buddha first instructs Rāhula to strike the bell and asks Ānanda: “Do you hear now?” Ānanda replies: “I hear.” After the bell sound ceases, he asks again: “Do you hear now?” Ānanda replies: “I do not hear.” On the surface, Ānanda’s answers seem to align with common sense, but the Buddha immediately counters with a rhetorical question: “What do you mean by hearing? What do you mean by not hearing?” pointing out his confusion between hearing and sound.

　　To clarify this point and guide Ānanda to recognize the constancy and clarity of “hearing nature,” the Buddha first uses the metaphor of dry wood, unfolding detailed reasoning:

　　Premise One: Sound arises and ceases due to external conditions (such as striking the bell or stopping), belonging to impermanent phenomena.

　　Premise Two: If “hearing nature” existed or ceased with sound, then when there is no sound, “hearing nature” should lose its function like dry wood, unable to hear again.

　　Fact: When the bell sound arises again, Ānanda can still perceive hearing, proving that “hearing nature” does not vanish with the disappearance of sound.

　　Inference: “Hearing nature” does not depend on the presence or absence of sound to change; its essence is constant and independent.

　　The Buddha then uses a dream analogy to verify the characteristic of “hearing nature” not being dull. He describes a person asleep hearing the sound of pounding cloth or rice, mistaking it in the dream for a drum or bell. Although consciousness is dull and judgment inaccurate, “hearing nature” remains spiritually clear, distinctly perceiving the sound. The Buddha asks rhetorically: “If hearing nature were dull, how could it hear in a dream?” The reasoning is as follows:

　　Premise One: When consciousness is dull, judgment is limited, but the ability to perceive sound is not lost.

　　Premise Two: If “hearing nature” were lost with the dullness of consciousness, like a blurred mirror unable to reflect objects, then nothing should be heard in a dream.

　　Fact: Sound is still heard in the dream, proving that “hearing nature” is not altered by the state of consciousness.

　　Conclusion: “Hearing nature” is not dull, always clear.

　　The Buddha further explains that the rising and falling of sound is like the arising and ceasing phenomena of form and sound, belonging to impermanence; while the constancy and non-dullness of “hearing nature” symbolize the pure, wondrously constant essence of “self-nature.” Sentient beings, due to beginningless attachment to arising-ceasing phenomena, fail to awaken to the purity of their nature, thus falling into defilement and flux.

　　Finally, the Buddha teaches: “If you abandon arising and ceasing, hold to true constancy, the constant light manifests, and the roots, dust, and consciousness-mind fall away at that moment.” This conclusion not only responds to Ānanda’s doubt about “no mind, no realization of the path,” but also reveals that abandoning impermanence and holding to true constancy can achieve the cultivation path of unsurpassed awakening.

　　This case study begins with the bell-striking scenario, through rhetorical questioning and logical analysis clarifies the distinction between “sound” and “hearing,” then uses a dream analogy to prove “hearing nature” is not dull, layer by layer deducing the pure, wondrous constancy of “self-nature.”

　　In summary, this chapter, through the two case studies of “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” and “Rāhula Striking the Bell,” elucidates how the Buddha skillfully employs language and words, gradually guiding from concrete phenomena to abstract essence. These two case studies demonstrate the multifaceted functions of language and words, not only as tools for describing phenomena but also, through layered analysis and reasoning, pointing to “self-nature.”

Chapter Four: Conclusion

　　Self-nature possesses the qualities of being unborn and undying, pure, and wondrously constant; though it transcends the direct expression of language and words, it can be recognized through the guidance of language. This paper takes “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” and “Rāhula Striking the Bell” from the Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices Śūraṅgama Sutra as examples, analyzing how language and words use metaphor, analogy, contrast, symbolism, situational description, logical reasoning, and rhetorical questioning to point from impermanent phenomena to the essence of self-nature. “Observing the River to Discern Seeing” contrasts the changes of the physical body with the unchanging “seeing nature,” revealing its unborn and undying nature; “Rāhula Striking the Bell” reflects the arising and ceasing of sound against the constant “hearing nature,” highlighting its clarity and non-dullness, and responds to Ānanda’s doubt about realizing the path, arguing that holding to true constancy can achieve unsurpassed awakening. Language and words are like “the finger pointing to the moon,” through diverse techniques assisting practitioners in moving from phenomena toward recognition of self-nature, playing a transformative role from the concrete to the abstract. In short, though language and words cannot fully express self-nature, they serve as a medium for recognizing self-nature. Future research can further explore the ways language expresses self-nature in other scriptures and their limitations, providing new perspectives for deepening the study of self-nature.

　　References

　　Classical Texts

　　(Sorted by Dynasty Chronology)

　　[Tang] Translated by Buddhatrāta: Great Expansive Perfect Awakening Sutra of Definitive Meaning, Vol. 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 17.

　　[Tang] Translated by Paramiti: Great Buddha Crown Tathāgata’s Secret Cause for Cultivation and Realization of the Definitive Meaning of All Bodhisattvas’ Myriad Practices Śūraṅgama Sutra, Vol. 1, Vol. 2, and Vol. 4, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19.

　　[Yuan] Compiled by Zongbao: Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 48, page 347 bottom.

Essay Writing of Buddhas’ Practice Incorporated

(Issue 21)

On Precepts

Mentor: Bennie Spirit

Author: Wang Huaigu (Ziju)

April 3, 2025

Abstract

Precepts, as the foremost of the Buddhist “Precepts, Concentration, Wisdom” triad, are the cornerstone of practice. This paper systematically explores the theoretical foundation, practical content, role in practice, and modern significance of precepts. Precepts originated from the behavioral guidelines established by Shakyamuni Buddha in response to the needs of the monastic community, based on the law of cause and effect, dependent origination, and the view of no-self, aiming to purify body, speech, and mind while cultivating good causes. From the Five Precepts and Ten Virtues to the Full Precepts and Bodhisattva Precepts, precepts encompass the life guidelines for both lay and monastic practitioners, with their practice adhering to the principles of voluntariness, flexibility, and purposefulness. Through analysis of classical cases, the paper reveals the multifaceted roles of precepts in purifying the three karmas, maintaining harmony in the monastic community and society, and guiding toward liberation. In modern society, precepts align with values such as environmental protection and integrity but face challenges from technological development and cultural conflicts. The paper proposes interpreting the spirit of precepts with compassion as the foundation and flexibility to adapt to contemporary needs. The study shows that precepts are not merely ethical norms but a bridge to wisdom and liberation, with their universal value worthy of further exploration in a globalized context.

Keywords: Precepts, Triad of Learning, Liberation, Compassion, Universal Value 

Chapter One: Introduction

Precepts are the core pillar of Buddhist practice. As the foremost of the “Precepts, Concentration, Wisdom” triad, they are not only the norms of monastic life but also the guide for lay practitioners. In the Buddhist tradition, precepts were gradually established by Shakyamuni Buddha in response to the needs of the monastic community and society, forming a complete system of ethics and practice from the Five Precepts and Ten Virtues to the Full Precepts and Bodhisattva Precepts. The Dhammapada states: “Refrain from all evil, cultivate all good, purify one’s mind—this is the teaching of the Buddhas.” This verse not only encapsulates the essence of Buddhist practice but also reveals the nature of precepts: through restraining body, speech, and mind, one purifies the heart, ultimately moving toward liberation.

This paper aims to systematically explore the theoretical foundation, practical content, and multifaceted roles of precepts in practice, while analyzing their significance and challenges in modern society. Specifically, it addresses the following questions: Why are precepts the cornerstone of practice? How do they function in the individual, society, and the path to liberation? Amid the changes in contemporary society, how should precepts adapt and develop? The study relies on scriptures such as the Vinaya Vibhāṣā, Dhammapada, Brahma Net Sutra, and Sutra on the Ten Virtuous Karmas, combined with historical cases and modern interpretations, using comparative analysis and textual exegesis to present a comprehensive picture of precepts. 

Chapter Two: Theoretical Foundation of Precepts

1. Definition and Origin of Precepts

“Precepts” derive from the Sanskrit term “śīla,” meaning morality, norms, and self-restraint, aimed at preventing wrongdoing and stopping evil. In Buddhism, precepts are behavioral guidelines established by the Buddha for his disciples to prevent unwholesome actions, cultivate good causes, and provide a pure foundation for practice. Their origin can be traced to the time of Shakyamuni Buddha, formulated based on specific situations in monastic life. The Four-Part Vinaya records that a monk once took someone else’s property without permission, prompting the Buddha to establish the precept against stealing. Precepts are divided into monastic precepts (e.g., monks’ precepts, nuns’ precepts, monastic Bodhisattva precepts) and lay precepts (e.g., Five Precepts, lay Bodhisattva precepts), covering everything from basic ethics to daily life details, tailored to different stages of practice. 

2. Philosophical Basis of Precepts

The theoretical foundation of precepts is rooted in the core teachings of Buddhism. First, the law of cause and effect is the fundamental support for precepts. The Ekottara Āgama states: “The fruits of all unwholesome karma arise from body, speech, and mind.” Precepts restrain behavior to prevent the accumulation of bad karma and create conditions for good outcomes. Second, the law of dependent origination reveals the internal logic of precepts: the afflictions of body, speech, and mind are interdependent, and precepts serve as a tool to break this vicious cycle. For example, the precept against false speech not only avoids verbal karma but also reduces the growth of anger and greed. Third, the view of no-self imbues precepts with deeper meaning. Observing precepts is not for satisfying the self but for transcending attachment and moving toward a state of no-self. As the Diamond Sutra says: “No self-form, no person-form, no sentient-being-form,” precepts are a practical path to breaking self-attachment. 

3. Relationship Between Precepts and the Triad of Learning

Precepts, concentration, and wisdom complement each other, forming the complete system of Buddhist practice. The Ekottara Āgama states: “With pure precepts, concentration becomes firm, and wisdom is perfected.” Precepts are like fertile soil, providing a foundation for the seeds of concentration; concentration is like rainwater, nourishing the fruits of wisdom. Without the restraint of precepts, the mind becomes chaotic, making concentration difficult, let alone enlightenment. The Saṃyukta Āgama records that the Buddha’s disciple Upāli, due to his strict observance of precepts, entered deep concentration and ultimately attained fruition. This example shows that precepts are not merely external norms but the starting point of inner practice. 

Chapter Three: Core Content and Practice of Precepts

Precepts are the basic and fundamental assurance of Buddhist practice, serving not only as behavioral norms for practitioners but also as an embodiment of Buddhist wisdom and compassion. 

1. Specific Items of Precepts

The content of precepts varies depending on the practitioner. Lay followers base their practice on the Five Precepts: no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct, no false speech, and no intoxicants. These Five Precepts are concise yet encompass the core principles of ethical living. The Eight Precepts and Ten Precepts build on this foundation with additional restraints, such as no singing or dancing, no adorning with perfumes or flowers, no sitting on high or luxurious beds, no eating at improper times, and no hoarding money, applicable to short-term monastic practice or intensive practitioners. Monastic practitioners observe the Full Precepts, such as monks’ and nuns’ precepts, while bodhisattvas may take lay or monastic Bodhisattva Precepts, covering details like diet, clothing, and interactions with others. For instance, the monks’ precept against digging the ground aims to avoid harming living beings, reflecting Buddhism’s compassionate spirit. 

2. Principles of Practicing Precepts

The practice of precepts follows three major principles. First, voluntariness. The Buddha emphasized that observing precepts should stem from self-awareness, not external coercion. The Vinaya Vibhāṣā records that the Buddha never forced disciples to take precepts but guided them through teaching, inspiring joy in their hearts. Second, flexibility. Precepts allow “exceptions,” such as taking medicine when ill or adjusting dietary rules during war, reflecting the practicality and human concern of the Dharma. Third, purposefulness. Precepts are not the ultimate goal but a means to liberation. Mahayana Buddhism further emphasizes the “mind of precepts,” as the Brahma Net Sutra states: “A pure mind leads to pure precepts.” Observing precepts is not just about following rules but about cultivating compassion and wisdom. 

3. Case Studies

The Vinaya Vibhāṣā records a theft case: a monk, out of hunger, mistakenly took someone else’s fruit. The Buddha ruled that there was no intent to steal, but the monk had to repent and return it. This case shows that precepts focus not only on actions but also on intent and consequences. Another case from the Five-Part Vinaya: a monk was reprimanded for hoarding money, prompting the Buddha to establish the precept against storing wealth to prevent greed. The Direct Explanation of the Brahma Net Sutra introduces Bodhisattva Precepts, such as “not speaking of the faults of the four assemblies,” requiring bodhisattvas to prioritize benefiting others and avoid slandering monks or laypeople. These cases demonstrate that precepts are both normative and flexible, varying by time and place. 

Chapter Four: Role of Precepts in Practice

1. Purifying Body, Speech, and Mind

Precepts directly affect the three karmas of body, speech, and mind. No killing restrains physical behavior, preventing violence and harm; no false speech purifies language, avoiding lies and disputes, and brings eight great benefits; no intoxicants prevents mental distraction, maintaining clarity. The Dhammapada states: “Taming body, speech, and mind is like tuning a lute—too tight, it breaks; too loose, it won’t sound.” Observing precepts keeps practitioners in a balanced state, gradually purifying the mind. For example, no killing not only avoids killing karma but also cultivates compassion; no false speech reduces anger and misunderstanding, purifying social relationships.

Take the precept against false speech from the Sutra on the Ten Virtuous Karmas as an example: it not only purifies language, avoiding lies and disputes, but also brings eight extraordinary benefits:

“Furthermore, Dragon King! If one abstains from false speech, one attains eight qualities praised by the heavens. What are these eight? First, because of abstaining from false speech, the mouth is always pure, with the fragrance of a blue lotus—naturally clean without need for brushing or rinsing. Second, because of abstaining from false speech, one is trusted and respected by all beings—naturally revered with absolute trust. Third, because of abstaining from false speech, one’s words become evidence, loved by humans and gods—whatever is proven is accepted by all. Fourth, because of abstaining from false speech, one can always comfort beings with loving words—capable of practicing the bodhisattva’s method of loving speech. Fifth, because of abstaining from false speech, one attains supreme joy, with the three karmas pure—body, speech, and mind always refreshed. Sixth, because of abstaining from false speech, one’s words are without error, and the mind is always joyful—precise expression without mistakes or omissions, with constant happiness. Seventh, because of abstaining from false speech, one’s speech is respected, followed by humans and gods—all revere and obey whatever is said. Eighth, because of abstaining from false speech, one attains supreme wisdom, unconquerable by any—gaining wisdom that none can overcome. If dedicated to unsurpassed perfect enlightenment, when the fruit ripens, these eight fruits will manifest throughout the universe.” 

2. Maintaining Harmony in the Monastic Community and Society

Precepts are not only tools for individual practice but also the foundation of the monastic community and society. The Five-Part Vinaya stipulates that monks must not hoard money to avoid greed and disputes, and must not eat at improper times to maintain simplicity and focus. Such rules ensure harmony in the monastic community and set a pure example. The Five Precepts for laypeople promote social ethics: no stealing upholds fairness, no killing respects life, no sexual misconduct ensures family harmony, and no false speech prevents deceit and falsehood, sustaining an honest society. The Vinaya Vibhāṣā records that the Buddha established co-living rules due to monastic disputes, emphasizing the “Six Harmonies,” such as physical harmony in living together and verbal harmony without contention, showing the profound impact of precepts on collective harmony. 

3. Path to Liberation

Precepts remove the five hindrances—greed, anger, ignorance, restlessness, and doubt—paving the way for concentration and wisdom. The Saṃyukta Āgama records that the Buddha’s disciples, due to pure observance of precepts, entered the first jhana and even attained arhatship. For example, the precept against intoxicants eliminates dullness, and the precept against false speech reduces doubt, both creating conditions for concentration. Ultimately, the purpose of precepts is to transcend precepts themselves, reaching a state of “no precepts to observe” in freedom. The Śūraṅgama Sutra Commentary states: “A pure mind leads to a pure land.” The ultimate goal of observing precepts is a mind free of attachments, fulfilling enlightenment. 

Chapter Five: Modern Significance and Challenges of Precepts

1. Applicability in Modern Society

In contemporary society, precepts retain universal value. The precept against killing aligns with environmentalism, promoting vegetarianism and ecological protection; the precept against false speech resonates with a culture of integrity, reducing rumors and fraud; the precept against stealing upholds social fairness. Though originating from Buddhism, the Five Precepts transcend religious boundaries, becoming a common standard for human ethics. The altruistic spirit of the Mahayana Bodhisattva Precepts further aligns with modern public welfare, such as the precept against stinginess encouraging generosity and supporting charitable causes. For example, the “life release” activities promoted by Buddhists worldwide not only practice the precept against killing but also awaken public respect and reverence for life.

2. Challenges Faced

However, precepts face numerous new issues in modern society. First, technological development brings ethical dilemmas. For instance, does spreading false information online count as false speech? Do gray areas in online transactions violate the precept against stealing? Second, globalization leads to cultural conflicts. Western societies emphasize individual freedom, creating tension with the restrictive nature of precepts. Additionally, the fast pace of modern life makes strict adherence to the Full Precepts difficult, such as the precept against eating at improper times, which is hard to maintain in a culture of overtime work. These challenges test the applicability and vitality of precepts.

3. Solutions

To address these challenges, the spirit of precepts should be interpreted flexibly rather than adhering rigidly to form. For example, in the internet age, the precept against false speech can extend to not spreading misinformation or malicious comments; the precept against stealing can include respecting intellectual property rights. The Mahayana concept of “skillful means” also offers inspiration: with compassion as the foundation, adjust the practice of precepts. For instance, for busy modern people, short-term Eight Precept practice can be promoted, aligning with tradition while adapting to reality. Additionally, the Buddhist community can integrate the universal value of precepts into modern ethical systems through education and dialogue, enhancing their inclusivity and influence.

Chapter Six: Conclusion

Precepts are the fundamental assurance of Buddhist practice, spanning the entire journey from beginner to fruition. They are not only behavioral norms for practitioners but also an embodiment of wisdom and compassion. By purifying body, speech, and mind, maintaining harmony in the monastic community and society, and guiding toward liberation, precepts play an irreplaceable role at both individual and collective levels. In modern society, precepts must evolve with the times, promoting their function of purifying hearts and harmonizing society in a flexible manner. Future research could further explore the psychological effects of precepts, such as their role in alleviating anxiety and stress, and their dissemination paths in diverse cultures, to deepen their contemporary value.

References

I. Classical Texts (Sorted by Dynasty):

[Later Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Diamond Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, Vol. 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 8. 

[Wu] Translated by Vighna et al.: Dhammapada, Vol. 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 4. 

[Tang] Translated by Śikṣānanda: Sutra on the Ten Virtuous Karmas, Vol. 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 15. 

[Song] Recorded by Zixuan: Essential Commentary on the Diamond Sutra, Vol. 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 33. 

[Song] Translated by Shi Hu: Sutra on the Causes of Ceasing Disputes, Vol. 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 1. 

[Ming] Direct Explanation by Jiguang: Direct Explanation of the Brahma Net Sutra, Vol. 1, New Extended Canon, Vol. 38. 

[Ming] Commentary by Chengshi: Śūraṅgama Sutra Commentary, Vol. 5, New Extended Canon, Vol. 15. 

[Republic of China] Authored by Venerable Yinshun: Overview of the Buddha’s Dharma, Y08.