Author: Shi Fafu

Jun 11, 2025 AD

Abstract 

Anger, as one of the Three Poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) in Buddhism, its roots lie in ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, and it is primarily characterized by instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions. This affliction not only causes immediate and long-term harm to an individual’s physical and mental well-being but also disrupts social harmony and personal merit, thereby constituting a fundamental obstacle to the practice of the Bodhisattva Path. This paper, based on Buddhist scriptures such as the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Cheng Weishi Lun, systematically analyzes the nature of anger, its generation mechanism, and the various harms it causes, with a particular focus on its obstruction to the initiation and practice of the Bodhisattva Path. Simultaneously, this paper proposes a comprehensive counteraction strategy centered on: dispelling illusory roots through the contemplation of wisdom; transforming anger into altruistic motivation through the cultivation of compassion; and subduing immediate reactions through mindfulness and adherence to precepts. Through an in-depth analysis of classical literature, combined with contemporary social phenomena and psychological theories, this paper demonstrates the specific process by which anger, from subtle emotions, escalates to trigger serious negative consequences, providing detailed theoretical foundations and practical guidance for Buddhist researchers and practitioners.

Keywords: Anger, Three Poisons, Bodhisattva Path, Self-Attachment, Emotional Counteraction

Table of contents

I. Introduction. 1

(I) Research Background and Significance. 1

(II) Research Questions and Methodology. 3

II. The Nature and Generation Mechanism of Anger 6

(I) Definition and Core Characteristics of Anger 6

(II)The Process of Anger Generation and Its Associated Afflictions (Upakleshas) 10

III. Analysis of the Harms of Anger 16

(I) Immediate and Long-Term Damage to Personal Well-being. 16

(II)Disruption of Social Harmony and Personal Merit 19

i. Case Study: Anger and Relationship Breakdown in Community Protests. 19

ii. Case Study: The Chain Reaction of Anger and Associated Afflictions in Daily Life. 22

iii. Obstacles to the Practice of the Bodhisattva Path. 24

IV. Theoretical and Practical Strategies for Overcoming Anger 26

(I) Wisdom Contemplation: Breaking the Illusory Roots of Anger 26

(II) Cultivation of Compassion: Transforming Anger into Altruistic Motivation. 29

(III) Mindfulness and Precepts: Subduing Immediate Angry Reactions. 32

V. Conclusion. 35

References. 38

I. Introduction

(I) Research Background and Significance

Anger (hereafter referred to as “anger”), as one of the Three Poisons (greed, anger, and ignorance) in Buddhism, is not only regarded as a fundamental cause of sentient beings’ transmigration in samsara and suffering, but its instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions, stemming from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, also constitute a severe test for Buddhist practice. As clearly warned in Fascicle 49 of the Avatamsaka Sutra, “If Bodhisattvas give rise to anger towards other Bodhisattvas, they will create millions of obstacles.”[1] This admonition profoundly reveals that even a single thought of anger can sow countless hindrances on the Bodhisattva Path, potentially blocking the way to supreme enlightenment. Fascicle 7 of the Upasaka-sila Sutra also warns: “All afflictions are my great enemies.”[2] This elevates various afflictions, including anger, to the status of adversaries that harm body and mind and erode the foundation of practice.

In modern society, the destructive nature of anger is ubiquitous. From family disputes leading to separation over trivial matters, to workplace conflicts inciting retaliatory behavior, and even the keyboard violence spawned by anonymity in the internet age—all clearly demonstrate that the negative impact of anger has widely spread from the individual level to the entire social sphere. These phenomena not only severely undermine overall social harmony and stability but also highlight the practical significance of deeply researching and effectively addressing anger.

From an academic perspective, the “sense of aversion” and “desire for retaliation” inherent in anger bear certain commonalities with contemporary psychological theories of cognitive appraisal. According to Lazarus (1991) in Emotion and Adaptation, anger often arises from an individual’s cognitive appraisal of goal obstruction or threats to self-worth.[3] This view shares similarities with the Buddhist understanding that anger arises from attachment to external circumstances and resistance to one’s own desires. However, the Buddhist understanding goes further, viewing anger as a karmic impetus whose influence extends beyond the present psychological state to future karmic retribution. This transcends the immediate analytical framework of psychology, offering a more macroscopic and profound perspective.

This paper, primarily based on Buddhist scriptural texts and contemporary social events, profoundly analyzes the nature of anger, its arising mechanisms, and its various obstacles to the practice of the Bodhisattva Path. Simultaneously, it explores effective strategies for overcoming anger by examining classic cases such as Devadatta’s attempts to harm the Buddha, which reveal the karmic retribution resulting from anger.

This research not only provides clear theoretical guidance and practical methods for Buddhist practitioners but also hopes to offer wise insights for contemporary emotional management and mental health.

(II) Research Questions and Methodology

This paper is primarily guided by the core concept that anger originates from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, manifesting as instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions. This core concept emphasizes two key characteristics of anger: its roots lie in an individual’s deep-seated ignorance and attachment to the self, and its explosive rapidity and powerful destructive force on both inner and outer harmony. This destructive emotion, triggered by self-attachment, is a significant impediment to the path of Buddhist practice. Based on this core concept, this research primarily focuses on multiple facets of anger and proposes the following three core questions for in-depth exploration and resolution:

1. How can the nature of anger be precisely defined from both the “instantaneous” characteristic of psychological emotion and the “long-term” aspect of karmic retribution?
2. How do the “destructive” harms of anger widely affect an individual’s physiological and psychological health, social harmony and stability, and what kind of obstacles does it pose to the progress of the Bodhisattva Path?
3. How does Buddhism effectively overcome anger using methods of “wisdom contemplation” and “compassionate practice,” thereby thoroughly eradicating its root and ultimately returning to a state of pure practice?

To systematically answer the above core questions, this research employs a multi-dimensional methodology.

First, this research will conduct an in-depth literature analysis of classical texts. Drawing upon important Buddhist scriptures such as the Avatamsaka Sutra, Cheng Weishi Lun, Maharatnakuta Sutra, and Yogacarabhumi Sutra, it will systematically review relevant discussions on the essential characteristics, arising mechanisms, and theories of overcoming anger, accurately grasping the profound insights of Buddhist doctrine regarding anger to lay a solid doctrinal foundation for this research.

Second, this research will adopt a contemporary case study approach. By analyzing conflict incidents in real society and specific examples in individual lives, such as intensified community disputes or the specific manifestations of inner afflictions in practitioners, it will verify the concrete impact of anger at both the social and individual practice levels, and preliminarily explore strategies for addressing these negative impacts. In the case analyses, the development process of events, the psychological activities of participants, and the ultimate outcomes will be meticulously described, striving to extract universally significant insights from specific examples.

Furthermore, this research will introduce interdisciplinary comparative analysis. Specifically, it will reference modern psychological research findings, such as Lazarus’s “Emotional Cognitive Appraisal Theory” presented in Emotion and Adaptation,[4] to explore the similarities and differences between the Buddhist understanding of anger and modern psychological theories of emotion regulation. This will reveal the potential applied value of Buddhist wisdom in the contemporary field of emotional management. Through this interdisciplinary perspective, a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity of anger can be achieved, and broader ideas for its resolution can be provided.

The aforementioned research methods complement each other, collectively forming the systematic framework of this research. The classical analysis primarily addresses questions regarding the definition of anger’s nature and its theoretical basis, while the case studies reveal the concrete manifestations of anger in real life and its harms. Interdisciplinary comparative analysis helps to expand the theoretical perspective on strategies for overcoming anger and explore the contemporary significance of Buddhist wisdom. Through the integrated application of these methods, this research aims to provide more in-depth and comprehensive insights for Buddhist practitioners and relevant academic researchers.

II. The Nature and Generation Mechanism of Anger

(I) Definition and Core Characteristics of Anger

Buddhism clearly categorizes anger as one of the fundamental afflictions, its nature and generation mechanism deeply rooted in individual self-attachment. This paper defines anger as “an instantaneous and destructive emotional reaction stemming from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment.” This definition emphasizes two core aspects: first, the fundamental cause of anger lies in an individual’s erroneous perception of the self (ignorance) and excessive attachment to it, clinging to a false and illusory “self” as real and attempting to maintain it; second, the emotional outburst of anger is often rapid and sudden, possessing powerful destructiveness that not only severely harms one’s inner peace but also causes harm to others, disrupting both internal and external harmony.

Fascicle 6 of the Cheng Weishi Lun offers a more specific explanation of the nature of anger: “Its nature is aversion and hatred towards suffering and the causes of suffering. It obstructs non-anger, causes unrest, and serves as the basis for unwholesome actions.”[5] This passage reveals that anger is characterized by hatred and annoyance. When an individual encounters an unpleasant situation (suffering of suffering), anger arises. Anger not only causes inner pain and unease but, more importantly, it is a significant source of various unwholesome actions. When anger is strong, individuals often lose rationality and engage in behaviors that harm themselves and others, thereby creating negative karma.

Fascicle 1 of the Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Paths of Action further elaborates on the specific manifestations of anger: “What is anger? It means giving rise to resentment towards sentient beings, causing harm, striking, etc.”[6] This clearly indicates that anger is not merely an internal emotion of indignation but also manifests externally as actual harmful behaviors, such as verbal abuse or physical aggression.

Thus, the harmfulness of anger lies in its being triggered by deep-seated self-attachment. Once it arises, it erupts rapidly, not only disrupting an individual’s inner peace but also leading to behaviors that harm others, thereby initiating a cycle of negative karma.

Furthermore, anger possesses the following three core characteristics closely linked to self-attachment:

First, instantaneousness reflects the rapid nature of anger’s outburst. This emotion often generates immense power in an instant, capable of destroying long-accumulated good merits. Fascicle 24 of the Dafangdeng Daji Jing states, “If a Bodhisattva gives rise to a single thought of anger, all good dharmas are lost.”[7] Similarly, Fascicle 3 of the Mahayana Ritu Liupoluomiduo Jing  also records, “Consumed by the fire of anger, all wholesome karma is exhausted.”[8] Both scriptures emphasize the immense destructive power of a single thought of anger, likening it to a raging fire that can burn away the roots of goodness accumulated by practitioners over countless eons. This warns that even slight anger can cause irreversible loss to one’s practice.

Second, destructiveness, like a blazing fire, is entirely contrary to the compassion and wisdom advocated by Buddhism. Fascicle 1 of the Fo Shuo Ru Huan Sanmei Jing states, “Those who are full of anger, their wrath and hatred are raging, like a wildfire burning grass and trees, cities, and houses, none are left unharmed.”[9] This analogy clearly reveals the ferocity and widespread destructiveness of anger, like a rampant wildfire that not only destroys the external environment but also burns away the roots of goodness within practitioners. Even more so, Fascicle 30 of the Madhyama Agama records the destructive effect of anger on interpersonal relationships: “When a person has anger, habitually practices anger, is covered by anger, and their mind does not abandon anger, their relatives and friends will abandon and avoid them.”[10] This indicates that chronic anger not only erodes an individual’s mind and distorts their character but also severely disrupts harmonious relationships with others, causing friends and relatives to distance themselves out of fear and disgust. This highlights the destructive impact of anger on social relationships. This destructiveness is more profoundly reflected in its erosion of the mind, as stated in Fascicle 3 of the Pusa Benxing Jing: “Full of anger, without compassion.”[11] This shows that if the mind is filled with anger, the wholesome thought of compassion cannot arise and may even be completely driven out. Thus, the destructive power of anger extends from within, from the distortion of personal character to external behavior, ultimately affecting everything around it, fundamentally contradicting the path of compassion and wisdom emphasized by Buddhism.

Finally, karma generation is another important characteristic of anger, directly pointing to the Buddhist law of cause and effect. Fascicle 2 of the Dasazheni Qianzi Suoshuo Jing explicitly states, “The sin of anger also causes sentient beings to fall into hell, the animal realm, and the realm of hungry ghosts.”[12] This emphasizes that the negative karma created by anger will lead to painful retributions, even leading to descent into the three lower realms and enduring endless suffering.

The above analysis of the definition and core characteristics of anger lays the foundation for subsequent discussions on its harms and methods of overcoming it.

(II)The Process of Anger Generation and Its Associated Afflictions (Upakleshas)

The arising of anger is rooted in individual self-attachment, and it typically emerges from the combined effect of ignorance (lack of understanding of the true nature of phenomena) and intense craving (the pursuit of pleasant things). When an individual’s cravings are not satisfied, or when external circumstances go against their inner expectations, a destructive negative emotion, namely anger, is instantly triggered. Fascicle 78 of the Maharatnakuta Sutra precisely states: “If cherished things do not go as desired, then hatred arises.”[13] This indicates that attachment is an important prerequisite for the generation of hatred. When people are excessively attached to a person, object, or idea, if these objects of attachment are lost, anger is easily generated.

Fascicle 1 of the Dafangguang Yuanjue Xiuduoliao Yijing further elaborates on this: “Because of desirable objects, there arise agreement and disagreement. When objects go against the loving mind, hatred and jealousy arise, leading to various actions, and thus one is reborn in hell or as hungry ghosts.”[14] This passage reveals that the generation of anger is a process of psychological transformation: when external circumstances contradict an individual’s attachment, the original craving transforms into negative emotions such as hatred and jealousy, which then drive the individual to create various negative karmic actions. Fascicle 4 of the Shurangama Sutra also states from an epistemological perspective: “Different views form hatred, similar thoughts form love.”[15] This indicates that rejection and opposition to different viewpoints can also be an important cause of hatred. When an individual stubbornly believes that their own viewpoint is the only correct one and rejects or even opposes views different from their own, hatred will arise. Thus, anger germinates from an individual’s ignorance and self-attachment, and the resulting craving and aversion. Once it encounters unsatisfactory circumstances or differing viewpoints, it rapidly evolves into an intense emotional reaction.

As a fundamental affliction, anger usually does not exist in isolation but expands its destructive power by triggering a series of associated afflictions (Upakleshas). These associated afflictions are like helpers and extensions of anger, transforming simple anger into a complex network of afflictions that further hinder the practitioner’s mental purity and the practice of the Bodhisattva Path. According to Fascicle 89 of the Yogacarabhumi Sutra, the following five associated afflictions are particularly closely related to anger:[16]

1. Indignation: Refers to the immediate surge of anger that arises from unsatisfactory circumstances. It is characterized by rapid eruption but relatively short duration. The Yogacarabhumi Sutra describes: “If the defilement of anger can cause the face to become grim and agitated, it is called indignation.”[17] From a psychological perspective, the mechanism of indignation may involve an individual’s rapid reaction to perceived threats (Lazarus, 1991).[18]Physiologically, indignation is often accompanied by physiological arousal such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and rapid breathing. Behaviorally, indignation typically manifests as verbal aggression, changes in facial expression, or impulsive physical actions. For example, a person shouting loudly at someone for being late, or even throwing things, is a typical manifestation of indignation.
2. Resentment: Refers to long-accumulated resentment and dissatisfaction harbored within the mind. It is characterized by being deeply ingrained and difficult to dispel. The Yogacarabhumi Sutra describes: “Harboring inner grievances, therefore called resentment.”[19] This indicates that if initial indignation is not resolved in a timely manner, it can take root in the mind and gradually transform into long-term resentment. Its psychological mechanism may be related to memory rumination (recurrently thinking about and recalling). Individuals constantly recall and reinforce experiences that cause them dissatisfaction, thereby deepening their resentment.[20] For example, a person may harbor resentment for decades due to unfair treatment experienced in childhood. This long-term resentment not only affects their physical and mental health but also hinders their normal interactions with others.
3. Annoyance: Refers to the inner agitation and restlessness caused by anger. It is characterized by the loss of inner peace and tranquility. Fascicle 2 of the Zabhipidamo Xin Lun describes: “When unpleasant things gather, or desired things are lost, and the mind is heated by thinking, it is called annoyance.”[21] When an individual encounters people or things they dislike, or when desired things cannot be obtained, inner agitation and annoyance arise, making it difficult to find peace. For example, a person may be unable to calm down after a heated argument with someone. Even after the event has passed, their mind remains anxious and restless, unable to sleep—this is a concrete manifestation of annoyance.
4. Jealousy: Refers to dissatisfaction and envy towards the advantages or achievements possessed by others. Fascicle 92 of the Maharatnakuta Sutra states: “One should observe gain, as it can give rise to feelings of superiority, inferiority, and jealousy.”[22] Its psychological mechanism may be related to social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). Individuals compare their own situation with others, and when they find others superior to themselves, they may develop jealousy.[23] For example, in a tech company, an employee might feel dissatisfied when a colleague receives an important project award, and even secretly obstruct the colleague’s work. This jealousy can severely impact team cooperation and individual career development.
5. Harm: Refers to the intention and behavior of wishing to harm others and cause them suffering. Fascicle 3 of the Abhidharma Pinlei Zu Lun defines harm as: “What is harm? It means being able to cause destruction, injury, and annoyance to sentient beings.”[24] Harm is a further development of anger. When anger and dissatisfaction accumulate to a certain degree, they can transform into actual harmful behaviors. For example, Xiao Ming harbors anger towards Xiao Hong, and images of Xiao Hong being unkind to him often appear in his mind. This anger eventually transforms into the intention of “harm”: Xiao Ming widely spreads negative rumors about Xiao Hong, intending to damage her reputation and make her suffer.

The generation and development of these associated afflictions present a vicious cycle. Initial indignation may only be a momentary emotional outburst, but if not promptly recognized and resolved, it can accumulate in the mind and become long-term resentment. This resentment can further lead to inner agitation and uneasiness (annoyance). When seeing others achieve success or happiness, jealousy may arise (jealousy), and intense anger and jealousy can ultimately drive the individual to engage in harmful behaviors (harm). Anger, as the core driving force of this network of afflictions, continuously nourishes and strengthens these associated afflictions, making it difficult for practitioners to maintain mental purity and severely disrupting the harmony of interpersonal relationships, ultimately hindering the compassion and wisdom pursued by the Bodhisattva path. Therefore, a deep understanding of the generation process of anger and the associated afflictions it triggers is of crucial importance for effectively overcoming anger.

III. Analysis of the Harms of Anger

(I) Immediate and Long-Term Damage to Personal Well-being

Anger poses significant and far-reaching harm to an individual’s physical and mental well-being, which can be analyzed from both immediate and long-term perspectives. Both levels of harm negatively affect the practitioner’s physical and mental state, thereby impeding their path of practice.

From an immediate perspective, when anger arises, the most direct impact is physical and mental imbalance, disrupting inner and outer harmony. Fascicle 7 of the Upasaka-sila Sutra describes: “Due to anger, one’s appearance and voice become coarse and evil, and one’s deportment becomes abrupt and violent.”[25] This scripture indicates that intense anger directly affects an individual’s facial appearance, making it ugly or even ferocious (coarse appearance), their speech becomes rude and violent (coarse voice), and their conduct loses composure and serenity, becoming agitated and rough (abrupt and violent deportment). Simultaneously, anger is accompanied by inner agitation and distress. Fascicle 8 of the Shurangama Sutra further depicts this inner feeling: “The habits of anger clash and erupt into conflict; the conflict and entanglement do not cease, the mind becomes hot and erupts with fire, casting qi into gold.”[26] This vividly reveals that anger burns like an inner fire, causing the individual to be restless, anxious, and unable to maintain peace.

Modern scientific research also confirms this. Sapolsky’s (2004) research indicates that outbursts of anger trigger the release of stress hormones, such as cortisol, leading to physiological reactions like increased blood pressure and heart rate, which disrupt the body’s physiological balance in the short term.[27] For instance, in a workplace dispute, an employee who became enraged on the spot after being severely criticized by their supervisor subsequently felt chest tightness, shortness of breath, and dizziness. This vividly demonstrates the immediate harm of anger.

If this state of physical and mental imbalance caused by anger is not promptly suppressed and adjusted, it will gradually accumulate, leading to more profound and long-term negative consequences for the individual. Anger not only causes an individual to disturb others, but more importantly, the recoil of this negative emotion also affects oneself. Prolonged exposure to anger and stress can lead to various illnesses and even shorten one’s lifespan.

Modern scientific research indicates that chronic anger continuously activates the sympathetic nervous system, weakening the body’s immune system function and increasing the risk of developing various chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (e.g., hypertension, coronary heart disease), digestive system diseases, and insomnia. For example, relevant research by Gan et al. (2011) shows that individuals in long-term high-stress environments experience sustained psychological stress responses that lead to chronic inflammatory responses and increased cardiovascular system load, thereby significantly increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases.[28] This case, from a modern medical perspective, strongly confirms the chain reaction of the negative emotion of anger, from immediate distress to long-term physical and mental exhaustion.

(II)Disruption of Social Harmony and Personal Merit

Anger not only harms the individual but also severely disrupts overall social harmony and personal merit. Its impact is evident not only in immediate interpersonal conflicts and breakdowns but also extends to long-term karmic retribution, fully demonstrating its destructive nature. The following two contemporary social case analyses, adapted from real events, will specifically illustrate how anger, stemming from an individual’s self-attachment, gradually spreads and evolves into a widely harmful factor for society, thereby verifying its powerful destructiveness.

i. Case Study: Anger and Relationship Breakdown in Community Protests

Let’s imagine in a certain urban community, a resident named Zhang Xiao (hereafter referred to as A) developed strong dissatisfaction and anger towards Li Hua (hereafter referred to as B), a government official responsible for a project to build a waste treatment plant near A’s residential area. A believed that this decision severely threatened his quality of life and physical health, infringing upon his cherished “stability” and “health” self-interests. Research by Ekman (1992) shows that perceived unfair treatment often triggers strong hostile emotions.[29] A’s anger might initially manifest as personal complaints and dissatisfaction, but soon, this “desire for retaliation,” fueled by a “sense of aversion,” drove him to take more drastic action. He began to fiercely accuse official B through community forums and public gatherings, claiming that B ignored residents’ demands and even spreading false rumors in an attempt to mobilize more residents to join the opposition.

This negative emotion rapidly spread throughout the community: A’s neighbors, influenced by his emotions, successively joined the protests and began to verbally attack and accuse residents who expressed support for the government project. This highly aligns with the emotional contagion theory proposed by Hatfield et al. (1993), which states that group emotions can rapidly spread and influence individual behavior.[30] As time progressed, the opposition between the two factions—those supporting and those opposing the project—intensified, and the protests gradually escalated into street conflicts. The previously harmonious neighborly relationships were severely damaged. Sunstein’s (2017) research points out that in relatively closed communities, the group polarization effect magnifies disagreements among members, leading to the collapse of mutual trust.[31] Due to continuous conflicts, public facilities in the community were damaged, and some businesses were forced to close due to safety concerns, leading to economic losses for the local area. This clearly highlights the powerful destructiveness of individual and group anger on social stability and economic development.

From a Buddhist perspective of cause and effect, A’s aggressive words and actions not only disrupted immediate harmony but also diminished his personal merit. His negative karma, created by anger, led to his gradual isolation from neighbors who supported the government project in his community, and his previously good interpersonal relationships subsequently broke down. This embodies the Buddhist concept of “diminished merit,” meaning that negative thoughts and actions reduce an individual’s good affinities, causing them to encounter obstacles in interpersonal interactions and life’s smooth progress. This case vividly demonstrates how anger, starting from an individual’s initial dissatisfaction arising from self-attachment, rapidly spread to the entire community through emotional contagion and group polarization, leading to conflict and division. Its destructiveness is reflected not only in the economic and interpersonal losses at the time but also extends to long-term community harmony and individual merit.

ii. Case Study: The Chain Reaction of Anger and Associated Afflictions in Daily Life

A practitioner named Li, who had been a monk for ten years, was known for his diligent practice when he first entered the monastery, but he had long been troubled by a habit of inner anger. During a communal practice session, a fellow practitioner, Xiao Zhang, due to a momentary oversight, failed to ring the assembly bell on time. Upon seeing this, Li immediately became enraged and sternly rebuked Xiao Zhang: “How can you practice if you are so sloppy?” (This is indignation).

Afterward, instead of reflecting on and repenting for his anger, Li regarded Xiao Zhang’s oversight as a typical manifestation of his laziness. From then on, whenever Li saw Xiao Zhang, a feeling of dissatisfaction and aversion would well up in his heart (This is the growth of resentment). In a subsequent Dharma assembly, Xiao Zhang was publicly praised by the master for his progress in practice. Upon hearing this, Li felt no joy for Xiao Zhang; instead, he secretly pondered: “What virtue or ability does this person possess to receive the master’s praise?” (This is the arising of jealousy). Not only that, but Li also privately complained to other fellow practitioners about Xiao Zhang’s hypocrisy and pretense (This is the verbal act of harm). Under the influence of this series of negative emotions and behaviors, Li’s mind became increasingly agitated and restless, making it difficult for him to calmly focus on practice (This is the manifestation of annoyance).

In this case, Li’s anger was not accidental; it was the result of the interaction between past karmic habits and present afflictions. Suppose Li, in a past life, had caused harm with harsh words during a dispute. These negative karmic seeds lay dormant in his Alaya-vijnana (storehouse consciousness). When he faced Xiao Zhang’s “improper” behavior, and based on his attachment to the perfectness of his “self” practice (ignorance and self-attachment), these dormant karmic seeds were triggered, leading to the present thought of anger. The present thought of anger, in turn, created new negative karma, reinforcing his inner habit of anger, thus forming a vicious cycle. From the initial angry rebuke to subsequent resentment, dissatisfaction, jealousy, slander, and finally inner agitation and restlessness, this series of interwoven associated afflictions constituted an affliction obstacle to practice, severely hindering Li’s concentration and purity in practice. His actions of harsh speech and jealousy also sowed negative causes, affecting his future karmic retribution. This case profoundly reveals that anger not only harms the practitioner’s own progress but also undermines the harmony of the monastic community.

From the two cases above, it can be seen that anger, starting from the “sense of aversion” and “desire for retaliation” arising from individual self-attachment, rapidly spreads to surrounding social relationships, disrupting harmony between people, and through the mechanism of karma, continuously depletes an individual’s merit and roots of goodness, causing profound destructive effects on individuals and groups, thereby becoming a fundamental obstacle to the practice of the Bodhisattva Path.

iii. Obstacles to the Practice of the Bodhisattva Path

For practitioners who have vowed to liberate all sentient beings and attain unsurpassed Bodhi, anger constitutes an immense obstacle to practice. The self-attachment and destructive nature of anger directly erode the most fundamental aspiration of the Bodhisattva Path—vast compassion and the vow to benefit sentient beings. When the mind is occupied by anger, practitioners find it difficult to generate genuine compassion and care for sentient beings, and it becomes even more impossible for them to take action to help them escape suffering.

The Avatamsaka Sutra clearly warns about this: if Bodhisattvas give rise to anger towards other Bodhisattvas, they will create millions of obstacles. This not only hinders the progress of Bodhisattva practice but also sows numerous causes of hindrances on the path of practice. These obstacles specifically include the obstacle of being far from the Bodhi of the Buddhas, which causes practitioners to be alienated from the enlightenment of the Buddhas, making it difficult to receive the blessings and guidance of the Buddhas; the obstacle of delighting in the Lesser Vehicle, which causes the Bodhisattva mind, originally cultivated for the Great Vehicle, to recede, turning instead to the pursuit of personal liberation in the Lesser Vehicle; and the obstacle of not generating the mind of omniscience, which causes practitioners to lose the desire for vast wisdom that penetrates the essence of all phenomena and the grand aspiration to broadly benefit sentient beings.[32] Thus, anger fundamentally shakes the foundation of Bodhisattva practice, making it difficult to maintain the mind of altruism and the vast pursuit of wisdom.

The destructive impact of anger on Bodhisattva practice is particularly evident in the case of Devadatta (Tiandaba) in Fascicle 1 of the Fo Shuo Si Nili Jing. The sutra records: “The foolish Devadatta wished to harm the Tathagata, killed an Arhat nun, and disrupted the community of monks. His body disintegrated, and upon death, he entered the three evil paths, being reborn in the Avici Hell, where, due to this cause and condition, the monk Devadatta entered the great hell, with flames forty cubits long erupting from his body.”[33] This passage reveals that Devadatta, due to his jealousy and anger towards the Buddha, committed extremely serious transgressions: attempting to murder the Buddha, killing a nun who had attained Arhatship, and disrupting the harmony of the monastic community. His intense anger was the evil consequence of extreme self-attachment, which not only completely destroyed his own foundation of practice but also, due to the pulling force of his evil karma, led him to fall into the Avici Hell after death, enduring the extreme suffering of flames erupting from his body. This case, with its tragic consequences, warns practitioners that anger is one of the most terrifying enemies on the Bodhisattva Path. Its negative influence is not limited to the present life but extends into future karmic retribution, severely hindering the great undertaking of Bodhisattvas to liberate sentient beings and attain Buddhahood. Therefore, for practitioners committed to the Bodhisattva Path, subduing and eradicating the affliction of anger is a crucial task.

IV. Theoretical and Practical Strategies for Overcoming Anger

(I) Wisdom Contemplation: Breaking the Illusory Roots of Anger

Wisdom contemplation is a crucial method for fundamentally eradicating anger, directly addressing its core characteristic of “an instantaneous and destructive emotional reaction stemming from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment.” By deeply insightfully understanding the illusory and unreal roots of anger and applying wisdom to contemplate the true nature of phenomena, the anger arising from erroneous cognition can be effectively resolved, opening a path of purity for the practice of the Bodhisattva Path.

Fascicle 11 of the Fo Benxing Ji Jing states: “Phenomena arising from causes and conditions, once arisen, are already extinct.”[34] This sentence reveals that all phenomena perceived by an individual, including people, things, and events that cause joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness, are products of the aggregation of causes and conditions. They are essentially illusory, unreal, and arise and cease in an instant. They have no eternal substance; they arise in the present moment and are already ceasing. Similarly, the objects of an individual’s anger, and the events that trigger anger, are also products of the aggregation of causes and conditions, without eternal substance, and therefore not worth clinging to. This wisdom contemplation of dependent origination and emptiness aims to break the attachment to illusory appearances, thereby radically cutting off the root of hatred—self-clinging.

In specific practice, one can gradually dismantle the destructive power of anger by wisely contemplating its impermanence. For example, a Buddhist practitioner in the workplace experiences intense anger due to sharp criticism from a colleague. When anger first arises, they feel their heart rate accelerate and even want to immediately retort and retaliate. At this moment, they apply the method of contemplating impermanence, reflecting that the colleague’s criticism is merely verbal sounds that dissipate as soon as they are uttered, without any eternal substance. At the same time, they also contemplate that their own inner anger is also an impermanent emotion that arises and ceases with the change of causes and conditions, and there is no “self” that is truly being hurt and can be clung to. Through such contemplation, they gradually let go of their attachment to the criticism and their attachment to the “injured self,” and their mind quickly returns to peace. This process first observes the impermanence of critical words, recognizing that they cease as they arise; then further breaks through the attachment to the “self,” recognizing that there is no real “self” that can be permanently harmed by the words of others, ultimately restoring inner purity. This confirms what is stated in Fascicle 2 of the Chanfa Yaojie: “Wisdom can uproot all afflictions.”[35] When an individual truly understands the illusory nature of anger, they will no longer be bound and controlled by it, but can face the people and events that trigger anger with a peaceful mind.

Thus, using wisdom contemplation to break the illusory roots of anger can not only resolve its instantaneous destructive power but also help practitioners transcend self-attachment, thereby better returning to the compassion and wisdom pursued by Bodhisattva practitioners. This wisdom contemplation lays an important theoretical foundation for subsequent practical strategies.

(II) Cultivation of Compassion: Transforming Anger into Altruistic Motivation

Cultivation of compassion is a crucial strategy for transforming inner anger into altruistic motivation. It directly targets the core of anger—”self-attachment”—by consciously cultivating and increasing compassion, which can effectively resolve the anger triggered by self-centeredness and thus achieve the vast Bodhisattva Path. As Fascicle 1 of the Fayuan Zhulin states: “When compassion arises, there is no intention to harm.”[36] This sentence concisely indicates the opposition between compassion and hatred. And Fascicle 324 of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra also states: “If Bodhisattvas-mahāsattvas wish to attain Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi… they should give rise to great compassion towards all sentient beings, and should not give rise to anger; they should speak with great compassion to all sentient beings, and should not speak with anger; they should give rise to great sympathetic joy towards all sentient beings, and should not give rise to harmful thoughts towards them; they should speak with great sympathetic joy to all sentient beings, and should not speak with harmful thoughts.”[37] These scriptures all clearly state that cultivating vast compassion not only pacifies one’s own hatred but is also the essential path to initiating and attaining supreme enlightenment.

In specific practice, the cultivation of compassion can transform inner anger through the following three steps:

First, stabilize the mind. When anger arises, the first thing to do is not to react immediately, but to gradually calm the restless mind by chanting the names of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.[38] This step aims to cut off the “instantaneous explosive” impulse of anger, creating conditions for subsequent contemplation.

Second, contemplate the suffering of sentient beings. After the mind is stabilized, shift attention from one’s own dissatisfaction and grievances to observing the pain and misfortune of others. This step requires practitioners to empathetically feel the difficulties of others, giving rise to empathy and pity. This is cultivating sympathetic joy, expanding the focus from the narrow “self” to all sentient beings, directly dissolving the root of self-attachment.

Third, make a vow to help them achieve liberation with compassion. After feeling the suffering of others, further make a vow to use wisdom and compassion to help them escape from afflictions and suffering. This is a concrete manifestation of the further sublimation of compassion.

For example, a practitioner becomes intensely angry because a neighbor frequently makes noise, disturbing their sleep, and even contemplates retaliation. At this moment, they do not immediately take action but first calm down and sincerely chant the holy name of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, “Namo Great Compassionate Avalokiteshvara.” Gradually, their inner anger begins to subside, and their mind gradually calms, effectively stopping the immediate outburst of anger. Then, they begin to contemplate that the neighbor might also be unintentionally making noise due to excessive life pressure, and perhaps they also have their own troubles and sufferings. Finally, they vow to understand and tolerate the neighbor with a compassionate heart, and even find appropriate ways to help them solve their difficulties, rather than aggravating the conflict with anger and confrontation. Through such practice, the anger that originally arose from self-attachment gradually transforms into an altruistic motivation, and the practitioner’s mind also returns to peace and tranquility.

This example shows how stabilizing the mind to break the instantaneous impulse of anger, further contemplating the suffering of others to resolve self-centered attachment, and finally making an altruistic vow to sublimate inner motivation can effectively transform anger into the power of Bodhisattva practice. Thus, the cultivation of compassion transforms the destructiveness of anger with an altruistic mind. It can not only restore inner peace and tranquility but also help practitioners actively practice the compassion and wisdom of the Bodhisattva Path.

(III) Mindfulness and Precepts: Subduing Immediate Angry Reactions

Mindfulness and Precepts are two effective methods for subduing the immediate reactions of anger, directly addressing the “instantaneous destructive” characteristic of anger. Mindfulness, through the truthful awareness of one’s current physical and mental state, helps practitioners recognize the presence of anger the moment it arises, thereby preventing them from being swept away by emotion and acting irrationally. Precepts, on the other hand, through adherence to certain moral norms and codes of conduct, restrain an individual’s words and actions, preventing them from harming themselves and others under the sway of anger, thereby breaking the cycle of negative karma. Mindfulness is the wisdom of awareness, and precepts are the rules of conduct; the two complement each other, jointly promoting the pure practice of the Bodhisattva Path.

The Anguttara Nikaya emphasizes: “I shall abide contemplating the body in the body, ardent, mindful, and clearly comprehending, having subdued covetousness and sorrow in the world.”[39] Here, “sorrow” refers to negative emotions such as anger. The sutra teaches practitioners to maintain present moment awareness of their body and mind (mindfulness) and to understand the current state with clear wisdom, thereby subduing inner desires and distress, including anger and other afflictions. This provides a theoretical basis for immediate intervention when anger first arises. At the same time, Fascicle 1 of the Jie Chuxin Xuerenwen warns practitioners regarding precepts: “Those who are beginners… should only treat others with a compassionate mind, and not harm others with harsh words.”[40] This clearly indicates that when facing others or one’s own emotions, one should maintain a compassionate mind and not harm others with harsh words or actions, thereby establishing clear norms for behavior.

In specific practice, when anger arises, practitioners can first use mindfulness to observe bodily sensations (e.g., muscle tension, increased heart rate) and inner thoughts, thereby stabilizing emotions and avoiding impulsive reactions. This step creates space to halt the “instantaneous outburst” of anger. Simultaneously, one should remind oneself to uphold the precepts of non-anger and non-harm, restraining one’s speech and actions, and not allowing the fire of anger to spread further.

For example, a lay Buddhist practitioner feels anger rising because a family member did not prepare dinner on time, and thoughts of harshly blaming them arise. At this moment, they immediately apply mindfulness, becoming aware of their emotional changes, the tension in their body, and the harsh words about to escape their lips. They realize that anger is an impermanent, illusory feeling that will dissipate. Then, they recall the precept of “treating others with a compassionate mind, not harming with harsh words,” immediately restraining their speech and actions, ultimately avoiding a family dispute. This example demonstrates how to use mindfulness to timely cut off the impulse of anger and how to use the principles of precepts to protect a compassionate mind, thereby quickly restoring inner peace.

Furthermore, Kabat-Zinn’s (1990) research also confirms that mindfulness practice can reduce an individual’s emotional reactions and enhance self-regulation ability, allowing individuals to observe inner experiences more objectively rather than being consumed by them.[41] This aligns with the Buddhist method of using mindfulness to quell afflictions such as anger.

Thus, mindfulness and precepts work synergistically to effectively subdue the immediate reactions of anger. They can not only quell immediate conflicts and disputes but also help practitioners advance in the pure practice of the Bodhisattva Path in daily life, providing a solid behavioral foundation for achieving ultimate compassion and wisdom.

V. Conclusion

This paper has deeply analyzed the core concept from Buddhist scriptures that anger originates from ignorance and deep-seated self-attachment, manifesting as instantaneous and destructive emotional reactions. The research reveals that the harms of anger are widespread and profound, not only severely affecting an individual’s physical and mental health but also disrupting overall social harmony and posing a fundamental obstacle to the initiation and practice of the Bodhisattva Path. Its roots lie in the ignorance and self-attachment of sentient beings and its destructive power is amplified by associated afflictions such as indignation, resentment, annoyance, jealousy, and harm. If not effectively addressed, anger will hinder the growth of compassion and wisdom, severely impeding an individual’s ultimate liberation.

Buddhism offers a comprehensive system for overcoming anger, centered on wisdom, compassion, mindfulness, and precepts. First, wisdom contemplation, by insightfully understanding the dependent origination and empty, illusory nature of all phenomena, fundamentally eradicates the roots of anger arising from self-clinging. Second, the cultivation of compassion, with its vast altruistic intention, transforms the destructiveness of anger into a powerful force for benefiting sentient beings. Finally, mindfulness and precepts, through the truthful awareness of one’s current physical and mental state and adherence to codes of conduct, effectively subdue the immediate impulses of anger. These three strategies are interdependent and form an organic whole: wisdom lays the fundamental theoretical basis for overcoming anger, compassion elevates practice to active Bodhisattva conduct, and mindfulness and precepts safeguard the practitioner’s physical and mental purity in daily life. This comprehensive system for overcoming anger can not only effectively pacify inner anger but also ultimately help practitioners return to the altruistic Bodhisattva Path and achieve vast enlightenment.

It is hoped that future research can further deepen the exploration of the affliction of anger, investigating how to more precisely apply the aforementioned strategies for overcoming anger at different stages of practice to achieve optimal results. Simultaneously, one could attempt to combine contemporary psychological empirical research to verify the effectiveness of Buddhist methods for overcoming anger using modern scientific approaches, thereby providing new perspectives with greater persuasiveness and practical significance for the practice of the Bodhisattva Path and contemporary emotional management.

References  

Ancient Texts (Ordered chronologically by dynasty)

1. [Western Jin] Translated by Zhu Fahu: Fo Shuo Ru Huan Sanmei Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 12.
2. [Eastern Jin] Translated by Sanghabhadra: Madhyama Agama, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 01.
3. [Eastern Jin] Translated by Dharmaraksa: Fo Shuo Si Nili Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 02.
4. [Yao Qin] Translated by Kumarajiva: Chanfa Yaojie, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 15.
5. [Yao Qin] Translated by Kumarajiva: Miaofa Lianhua Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 09.
6. [Northern Liang] Translated by Dharmaraksa: Upasaka-sila Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 24.
7. [Northern Liang] Translated by Dharmaraksa: Dafangdeng Daji Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 13.
8. [Sui] Translated by Jñanagupta: Fo Benxing Ji Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 03.
9. [Tang] Translated by Siksananda: Avatamsaka Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol.
10. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Cheng Weishi Lun, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 31.
11. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Yogacarabhumi Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 30.

12. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Abhidharma Pinlei Zu Lun, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 26.
13. [Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 06.
14. [Tang] Translated by Prajna: Mahayana Ritu Liupoluomiduo Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 08.
15. [Tang] Translated by Bodhiruci: Dasazheni Qianzi Suoshuo Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 09.
16. [Tang] Translated by Bodhiruci: Maharatnakuta Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 11.
17. [Tang] Translated by Buddhatrāta: Dafangguang Yuanjue Xiuduoliao Yijing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 17.
18. [Tang] Translated by Pāramitī: Shurangama Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19.
19. [Tang] Compiled by Dao Shi: Fayuan Zhulin, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 53.
20. [Song] Translated by Ri Cheng et al.: Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Paths of Action further, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 17.
21. [Song] Translated by Samghavarman et al.: Zabhipidamo Xin Lun, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 28.
22. [Goryeo] Compiled by Jinul: Jie Chuxin Xuerenwen, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 48.
23. Translated by Guo Zhezhang: Anguttara Nikaya, Pali Tripitaka Vol. 23.
24. Translator unknown: Pusa Benxing Jing, Taisho Tripitaka Vol. 03.

Others

1. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press.
2. Rusting, C. L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Ruminating on acute anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
3. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.
4. Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers: A guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping. Henry Holt and Company.
5. Gan, W. Q., Davies, H. W., & Demers, P. A. (2011). Occupational noise exposure and cardiovascular disease in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68(3), 183-190.
6. Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169-200.
7. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(3), 96-99.
8. Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.
9. Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. Delacorte Press.

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[1] Siksananda (transl.): Avatamsaka Sutra, Fascicle 49: “If Bodhisattvas give rise to anger towards other Bodhisattvas, they will create millions of obstacles. What are these millions of obstacles? Namely: the obstacle of not seeing Bodhi… the obstacle of severing the Bodhisattva realm; the obstacle of retreating from courageous Dharma in Bodhisattvas; the obstacle of laziness in the Bodhisattva’s path of liberation; the obstacle of halting the wisdom-light gate in Bodhisattvas; the obstacle of weakening the power of mindfulness in Bodhisattvas; the obstacle of inability to uphold the Tathagata’s teachings; the obstacle of inability to draw near the Bodhisattva’s path of freedom from birth; the obstacle of inability to cultivate the Bodhisattva’s indestructible path; the obstacle of following the proper position of the Two Vehicles; the obstacle of being far from the lineage of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas of the three times.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 10, pp. 257c-258b.

[2] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Upasaka-sila Sutra, Fascicle 7, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 24, p. 1074c.

[3] Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. Oxford University Press.

[4] Same note 3.

[5] Xuanzang (transl.): Cheng Weishi Lun, Fascicle 6, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 31, p. 31b.

[6] Ri Cheng et al. (transl.): Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Paths of Action further, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 17, p. 458a.

[7] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Dafangdeng Daji Jing, Fascicle 24, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 13, p. 170a.

[8] Prajna (transl.): Mahayana Ritu Liupoluomiduo Jing, Fascicle 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 08, p. 877c.

[9] Zhu Fahu (transl.): Fo Shuo Ru Huan Sanmei Jing, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 12, p. 143a.  

[10] Sanghabhadra (transl.): Madhyama Agama, Fascicle 30, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 01, p. 617c.

[11] Translator unknown: Pusa Benxing Jing, Fascicle 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 03, p. 123a.

[12] Bodhiruci (transl.): Dasazheni Qianzi Suoshuo Jing, Fascicle 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 09, p. 328c.

[13] Bodhiruci (transl.): Maharatnakuta Sutra, Fascicle 78, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 11, p. 444a.

[14] Buddhatrāta (transl.): Dafangguang Yuanjue Xiuduoliao Yijing, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 17, p. 916b.

[15] Pāramitī (transl.): Shurangama Sutra, Fascicle 4, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 120a.

[16] Xuanzang (transl.): Yogacarabhumi Sutra, Fascicle 89: “If the defilement of anger can cause the face to become grim and agitated, it is called indignation. Harboring inner grievances, therefore called resentment. Concealing many evils, therefore called concealment. Afflicted and alarmed, therefore called burning distress. Harboring defilement in the mind, not delighting in others’ glory, therefore called jealousy. Harboring deep meanness towards the means of livelihood, therefore called stinginess.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 30, p. 802b.

[17] Same note 16.

[18] Same note 3.

[19] Same note16.

[20] Rusting, C. L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1998). Ruminating on acute anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

[21] Samghavarman et al. (transl.): Zabhipidamo Xin Lun, Fascicle 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 28, p. 881c.

[22] Bodhiruci (transl.): Maharatnakuta Sutra, Fascicle 92, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 11, p. 523c.

[23] Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations.

[24] Xuanzang (transl.): Abhidharma Pinlei Zu Lun, Fascicle 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 26, p. 700b.

[25] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Upasaka-sila Sutra, Fascicle 7, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 24, p. 1071a.

[26] Pāramitī (transl.): Shurangama Sutra, Fascicle 8, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 143c.

[27] Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers: A guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping. Henry Holt and Company.

[28] Gan, W. Q., Davies, H. W., & Demers, P. A. (2011). Occupational noise exposure and cardiovascular disease in the United States: The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2004. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 68(3), 183-190.

[29] Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169-200.

[30] Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Rapson, R. L. (1993). Emotional contagion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2(3), 96-99.

[31] Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.

[32] Same note 1.

[33] Dharmaraksa (transl.): Fo Shuo Si Nili Jing, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 02, p. 861c.

[34] Jñanagupta (transl.): Fo Benxing Ji Jing, Fascicle 11, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 03, p. 703b.

[35] Kumarajiva (transl.): Chanfa Yaojie, Fascicle 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 15, p. 294c.

[36] Dao Shi (compiled): Fayuan Zhulin, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 53, p. 271a.

[37] Xuanzang (transl.): Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, Fascicle 324, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 06, p. 657a.

[38] Kumarajiva (transl.): Miaofa Lianhua Jing, Fascicle 7: “If one has much anger, constantly thinking of and respectfully invoking Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, one will be freed from anger.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 09, p. 57a.

[39] Guo Zhezhang (transl.): Anguttara Nikaya, Pali Tripitaka, Vol. 23, p. 205a.

[40] Jinul (compiled): Jie Chuxin Xuerenwen, Fascicle 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 48, p. 1004b.

[41] Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. Delacorte Press.