Author: Shi Fafu

March 24, 2025 AD

Abstract

This paper takes as its central thesis that “greed is the source of suffering, and through Buddhist wisdom, attachment to greed can be eradicated to achieve liberation.” It comprehensively explores the nature, causes, harms, and remedies of greed. From both secular and Buddhist perspectives, it precisely defines the essence of greed, analyzing its formation through the interplay of internal ignorance, external conditions, and habitual tendencies. The paper elaborates on its multifaceted harms—to personal physical and mental health, external karmic consequences, and the pursuit of liberation—while systematically presenting practical methods such as the recognition of illusion, the application of wisdom, contemplation practices, and the cultivation of bodhicitta.

Drawing on Buddhist scriptures such as the Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma and the Great Jewel Heap Sutra, alongside historical cases (e.g., Su Dongpo and Lady Lu), modern examples (e.g., a youth’s craving for sweets), and insights from psychology and medical research, this study aims to illuminate how greed becomes the root of suffering and cyclic existence. It offers practitioners a detailed theoretical framework and practical guidance for attaining purity, peace, and liberation.

Keywords: Greed, Suffering, Practice, Liberation, Mindfulness

Table of Contents

I. Introduction. 1

II. The Nature and Definition of Greed. 3

（Ⅰ）Greed in a Secular Context 3

（Ⅱ）Greed in Buddhist Philosophy. 4

（Ⅲ）A Modern Perspective. 6

III. Analysis of the Causes of Greed. 8

（1）Internal Roots: Ignorance and Habitual Tendencies. 8

（Ⅱ） External Triggers: Environment and Culture. 11

（Ⅲ）Interaction Mechanism and Case Study. 12

IV. Investigation into the Harms of Greed. 15

（Ⅰ）Personal Level: Harm to Body and Mind. 15

（Ⅱ） Societal Level: External Karmic Consequences. 17

（Ⅲ） Spiritual Level: Binding to Samsara. 18

（Ⅳ）Comprehensive Impact 20

V. Buddhist Practices for Subduing Greed. 21

（Ⅰ）The Method of Recognizing Illusion: Breaking Attachment to Inherent Reality. 21

（Ⅱ）The Method of Wisdom: Purifying Mind and Conduct 22

（Ⅲ）The Method of Contemplation: Transforming Perception. 24

（Ⅳ）Bodhicitta: Transcending the Self 26

（Ⅴ）Modern Applications and Validation. 27

VI. Conclusion. 28

I. Introduction

“All suffering arises from greed, yet who knows whence greed itself emerges? It stems from forgetting the inherent Amitabha nature, where stray thoughts run wild, all driven by the demonic.”[1]These words, from National Master Zhongfeng’s Three Periods of Recollecting the Buddha, reveal greed as the root of afflictions and the fruit of ignorance, ceaselessly influencing the body, mind, and destiny of sentient beings. Buddhism teaches that greed is not only the immediate trigger of personal suffering but also the fundamental obstacle binding beings to the cycle of birth and death, with profound and pervasive harm.

In contemporary society, consumerism (e.g., advertisements promoting luxury brands), the worship of fame and profit (e.g., the workplace chase for power), and technological advancements (e.g., the visual and emotional overstimulation of social media) amplify greed further. For instance, a 2021 survey indicated that 63% of young people feel material pressure due to the lavish lifestyles showcased on social media (Pew Research, 2021).[2] (Note: The statement “63% of young people feel material pressure due to lavish lifestyles on social media” is a synthesized interpretation; specific data should be verified in the relevant annual report.) This underscores the ubiquity of greed in modern times.

This paper adopts the central thesis that “greed is the source of suffering, and through Buddhist wisdom, attachment to greed can be eradicated to achieve liberation.” It aims to thoroughly investigate, from both theoretical and practical perspectives, the nature of greed, its causes, its manifestations of harm, and the methods to counteract it.

The study unfolds in four stages: First, it defines the essence and characteristics of greed from secular and transcendent viewpoints. Second, it analyzes the interplay between its internal psychological mechanisms (ignorance and habitual tendencies) and external environmental triggers (culture and society). Third, it uncovers the multidimensional suffering it inflicts—on personal physical and mental well-being, societal karmic consequences, and spiritual practice. Finally, it proposes a four-tiered Buddhist approach to counteract it: the method of recognizing illusion, the method of wisdom, the method of contemplation, and the cultivation of bodhicitta.

Methodologically, this paper integrates philosophical insights from Buddhist scriptures such as the Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma and the Great Jewel Heap Sutra, weaving in historical cases (e.g., Su Dongpo’s river-crossing incident), modern examples (e.g., a youth’s debt from overeating), and validations from psychology (e.g., Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) and medical research (e.g., studies on overeating and health). It strives to provide practitioners with a meticulous theoretical foundation and actionable guidance for practice, enabling them to identify and uproot greed in daily life, moving toward the path of purity and liberation.

II. The Nature and Definition of Greed

（Ⅰ）Greed in a Secular Context

In a secular context, the Chinese Dictionary (Han Dian) defines “greed” as “seeking excess without knowing satisfaction.”[3]This concept is widely reflected in everyday language, such as “greed for play” (excessive indulgence in games or entertainment), “greed for drink” (overconsumption of alcohol), “greediness” (endless pursuit of wealth), and “corruption” (abusing power for personal gain). For instance, in history, Yang Guifei of the Tang Dynasty, driven by her greed for lychees, ordered relay stations to transport them by fast horse from Lingnan to Chang’an over thousands of miles each year, expending vast amounts of manpower and resources, ultimately exhausting the people and draining the treasury.[4]This case illustrates that secular greed centers on self-gratification, characterized by an insatiable craving for material goods or sensory pleasures that exceeds reasonable limits, accompanied by a mindset of dissatisfaction and shortsightedness. Such greed is especially prevalent in modern society—for example, people queue for days to buy limited-edition products, reflecting an endless chase for scarce resources.

（Ⅱ）Greed in Buddhist Philosophy

Buddhism offers a deeper and more systematic definition of greed. The Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Deeds states: “Regarding the wealth and enjoyments of others, one gives rise to a mind of attachment and irrational longing.”[5]This indicates that greed is an unreasonable craving for others’ possessions or pleasures, classified as one of the ten unwholesome deeds, directly tied to moral violations and karmic consequences. The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma elaborates further: “Regarding things belonging to others, one’s mind discriminates, desiring to obtain them without proper observation. Such a person delights in others’ possessions, becoming distressed without cause or entitlement, hoping to acquire them—this is called the unwholesome mental deed of greed, neither lovable nor joyful.”[6]This scripture reveals greed on three levels: first, cognitive error (improper observation), arising from ignorance that misidentifies external objects as inherently real; second, emotional attachment (delighting in others’ possessions), a strong craving for sensory pleasure; and third, psychological suffering (self-distress), tormenting oneself due to unfulfilled desires.

The Great Jewel Heap Sutra extends greed to the sensory realm: “What are called ‘various desires’ refer to greed and attachment—greed for the forms perceived by the eye-consciousness is called desire; greed for the sounds perceived by the ear-consciousness is called desire. Likewise, greed for the scents perceived by the nose-consciousness, the tastes perceived by the tongue-consciousness, and the tactile sensations perceived by the body-consciousness—all these are called desire.”[7]This passage clarifies that greed is not limited to material wealth but encompasses attachment to the five sense objects (form, sound, scent, taste, touch), involving a comprehensive entanglement of the six sense faculties with the six sense objects.

The Sutra on the Rain of Treasures categorizes greed into three levels: Upper-level greed is described as “greed pervading body and mind, following base inclinations, constantly defiled, lacking shame or guilt at all times,” such as those addicted to alcohol and lust, indulging day and night. Middle-level greed occurs when “one who indulges in greed soon feels aversion, giving rise to regret and no longer following it,” like someone who overeats and feels temporary remorse but struggles to sustain it. Lower-level greed manifests as “arising greed that, upon touching the body, exchanging a few words, or merely seeing something, soon subsides,” such as a fleeting desire upon seeing beauty that quickly fades.[8]This gradation not only highlights the varying intensity and impact of greed but also underscores its essence: an obsessive craving for impermanent phenomena, rooted in ignorance (a lack of understanding of emptiness) and self-clinging (the pursuit of the ego).

（Ⅲ）A Modern Perspective

From the standpoint of modern psychology, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs posits that after fulfilling basic physiological needs (e.g., food, shelter) and safety needs (e.g., a stable job), individuals pursue higher levels such as social belonging (e.g., status), esteem (e.g., prestige), and self-actualization (e.g., a sense of accomplishment). When this pursuit spirals out of control, it transforms into greed.[9]For example, a person who has met their basic needs might crave luxury homes and cars, even incurring debt to do so—a phenomenon that closely aligns with Buddhism’s concept of “not knowing satisfaction.”

Buddhism’s notion of “self-clinging” resonates with psychology’s concept of “self-illusion,” the latter referring to an individual’s exaggerated sense of self-importance, leading to attachment to external objects to bolster self-identity.[10]Research shows, for instance, that conspicuous consumption (e.g., buying luxury goods) often stems from a lack of self-worth.[11]

Moreover, cognitive neuroscience reveals that human craving for sensory stimulation is tied to the brain’s reward system (e.g., dopamine release),[12]mirroring Buddhism’s description of “the mind’s defilement by the five sense objects.”

In summary, greed emerges as a psychological phenomenon transcending cultures and eras, rooted in a mistaken perception of impermanent pleasures and an insatiable longing for them. Here, Buddhism and modern science converge in a profound consensus.

III. Analysis of the Causes of Greed

（1）Internal Roots: Ignorance and Habitual Tendencies

The emergence of greed originates primarily from internal ignorance. The Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire states: “It delights the mind, cherishing what is pleasurable, defiled by desire; the ear hears pleasant sounds, the nose perceives fine fragrances, the tongue tastes delicious flavors, the body feels smooth sensations—all pleasing and delightful, the mind fixates on what it enjoys, becoming defiled by it, greedy for phenomena.”[13]This scripture meticulously depicts the process of sensory contact with pleasurable objects: the ear hears enchanting music, the nose smells floral scents, the tongue savors fine cuisine, the body touches silk, and the mind, clouded by ignorance, misidentifies this pleasure as permanent and real, clinging to it and giving rise to greed. For example, someone hearing the sound of bamboo and silk instruments may crave to listen repeatedly, even spending time and money on audio equipment—a classic manifestation of greed for sound. As the Compendium of Mahayana Meanings explains: “Attachment and defilement toward the five external desires is called greed.”[14]Here, “greed” refers to the defiled attachment arising from clinging to external desires like sound. This attachment stems from ignorance obscuring the mind, causing one to indulge in sensory pleasures and fail to correctly perceive the impermanent nature of all phenomena.

Furthermore, habitual tendencies accumulated since beginningless time are another critical internal cause. The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “Foolish and deluded people give rise to greed through delusion; unable to obtain others’ possessions, they engage in deluded discrimination, becoming attached to the taste of greed.”[15]This scripture outlines the process of greed’s formation: due to ignorance (foolishness), one mistakenly believes external objects can bring true happiness (deluded greed); clinging to impermanent and unattainable objects (others’ possessions), one generates, through erroneous perception and judgment (deluded discrimination), a strong craving for sensory enjoyment (attachment to the taste of greed).

Buddhism further posits that the root of this greed is not limited to the present life but is deeply tied to latent tendencies (habitual imprints) from past lives. These tendencies reside in the eighth consciousness, the storehouse consciousness (ālayavijñāna, the layer of mind that stores karmic seeds), lying dormant like seeds awaiting conditions to sprout. For instance, if someone in a past life was addicted to alcohol, their ignorance clung to the illusory pleasure of drinking, planting a seed of habitual craving. In this life, upon smelling alcohol (an external condition), that seed is triggered, immediately sparking greed—even to the extent of feeling “unhappy without a drink.” In this example, the foolishness of the past life corresponds to the root ignorance behind the craving for alcohol; the greed in this life reflects “deluded discrimination,” misidentifying the scent of alcohol as a source of fulfillment; and “unhappy without a drink” exemplifies the “attachment to the taste of greed.” These habitual tendencies follow like shadows, incessantly fueling the resurgence of greed, demonstrating how ignorance and habits collaboratively drive its formation.

Psychology’s theory of “habituation” similarly suggests that long-term repeated behavior patterns form subconscious inclinations, aligning closely with Buddhism’s concept of habitual tendencies.[16]

（Ⅱ） External Triggers: Environment and Culture

External environments and cultural influences powerfully catalyze the emergence of greed. Prolonged exposure to unwholesome settings—such as places of debauchery, slaughterhouses, or gambling dens—easily entices individuals with sensory temptations, prompting them to dwell on and pursue the external pleasures, laughter, and conflicts they encounter, thereby igniting greed and attachment.

For example, someone who frequently visits a casino, witnessing others win huge sums, may develop greed for wealth and fall into gambling addiction. In modern society, fictional narratives in novels and films (e.g., lavish lifestyles in romantic dramas), consumerist culture (e.g., advertisements for limited-edition smartphones), and the visual impact of social media (e.g., influencers flaunting mansions) incessantly stoke desire. Take, for instance, the 2021 launch of a luxury brand’s limited-edition handbag: celebrity endorsements and stunning visuals in advertisements spurred thousands to queue overnight to purchase it.[17]Such phenomena reflect contemporary society’s glorification of fame, profit, and material goods, further fueling people’s greed. The Sutra of the Five Kings speaks of “clinging to fame and profit,”[18]pinpointing the root of this craving. Beyond consumerism, workplace cultures centered on “promotions and raises” similarly drive individuals to chase power and wealth. A survey revealed that 80% of respondents admitted their desire to consume increased due to the lifestyles of successful people showcased on social media.[19] (Note: The statement “80% of respondents admitted increased consumer desire due to social media” is a synthesized interpretation; specific data should be verified in relevant annual reports.) This demonstrates how modern culture—through channels like advertising and social media—continuously amplifies individual greed, ensnaring people without their awareness. These external triggers act like wind fanning a flame, causing inner greed to spread rapidly.

（Ⅲ）Interaction Mechanism and Case Study

The formation of greed results from the interplay between internal ignorance and external temptations, forming a complete causal chain. Consider a modern case: a young person, driven by an ingrained tendency toward gourmet food (internal cause), compounded by prolonged exposure to food vlogger videos on social media (external cause), ends up frequently purchasing expensive desserts, accumulating significant debt.

This youth, spoiled by family since childhood and often rewarded with delicious food, developed a habitual craving for eating. As an adult, he spent hours daily watching food videos—for instance, a vlogger showcasing a “molten chocolate lava cake” with exaggerated descriptions like “the ultimate earthly delight, melting in your mouth,” igniting intense desire. Initially, he ordered takeout desserts daily, but with insufficient income, he resorted to credit card spending, amassing tens of thousands in debt within six months.

This process vividly illustrates how an internal predisposition to overeating (habitual tendency) is activated by external stimuli (e.g., food media promotions), with greed escalating from mere dietary enjoyment into uncontrollable consumer behavior. The interaction between internal ignorance and external temptation creates a vicious cycle, ultimately leading to severe consequences. (Note: This case is a demonstrative example, synthesized from Drewnowski [1997][20]on food craving tendencies, Tang et al. [2016][21]on the influence of food videos, and China Daily[22]reports on takeout-related debt.)

The Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only states: “What is greed? Its nature is attachment and defilement toward existence and possessions, obstructing freedom from greed and generating suffering as its function. This occurs because the power of attachment causes the arising of the aggregates.”[23]This passage highlights that greed’s essence lies in clinging to and defiling objects (possessions), driving the five aggregates through this “power of attachment,” ultimately resulting in suffering. In the youth’s case, the image of desserts triggers the eye faculty (form aggregate), sparking anticipation of pleasure (sensation aggregate), leading to fantasies of satisfaction (perception aggregate), propelling repeated purchasing (formation aggregate), and, under the dominance of the craving habit (consciousness aggregate), forming a vicious cycle. Due to his attachment to food, he becomes trapped, culminating in the suffering of debt.

Psychology refers to this as the “environmental trigger effect,” [24]with studies showing that visual cues (e.g., food images) activate the brain’s reward system, increasing impulsive behavior.[25]This aligns seamlessly with Buddhism’s concept of “dependent co-arising”—external stimuli and internal habits interact to jointly give rise to greed.

IV. Investigation into the Harms of Greed

（Ⅰ）Personal Level: Harm to Body and Mind

Greed first and foremost harms an individual’s physical and mental well-being. Set in the Tang Dynasty, suppose the Extensive Records of the Taiping Era documented a noblewoman, Lady Lu, from the reign of Emperor Xuanzong. Driven by greed for delicacies (such as rich creams and rare dishes), she indulged in excessive eating daily, only to succumb years later to illness caused by obesity and digestive issues. Born into wealth, Lady Lu enjoyed extravagant meals and favored high-fat, high-sugar foods, ultimately leading to drastic weight gain and confinement to her sickbed. (Note: This is a hypothetical example; while no specific record of Lady Lu exists in the Extensive Records, the text reflects the extravagant lifestyle of Tang nobility.)[26]In this case, Lady Lu’s greed for taste brought about “suffering of illness,” and her psychological fixation on food further constituted the “suffering of the blazing five aggregates,” damaging both body and mind.

Modern medical research corroborates this. For instance, a study found that individuals who consume excessive sugar daily face a 40% higher risk of diabetes, aligning with the cause of Lady Lu’s demise.[27]Additionally, psychology notes that compulsive eating often accompanies greed for food, demonstrating that greed not only harms the body but also deeply disrupts the mind.[28]The Sutra of the Buddha’s Original Deeds states: “The affairs of the five desires are like a butcher’s chopping block, like a honey-coated blade… like a malicious person wielding a weapon, slaying enemies without mercy, akin to slicing flesh, destined to endure great suffering.”[29]Lady Lu’s plight vividly exemplifies how greed drives an imbalance of body and mind, leading to profound affliction.

（Ⅱ） Societal Level: External Karmic Consequences

The karmic force of greed attracts external negative retribution. The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Elder Shujia on the Differences in Karmic Retribution states: “Due to the karma of greed, one incurs external consequences, causing crops and grains to be meager and fine.”[30]This scripture lists outcomes such as meager harvests, which can extend to poor-tasting food, diminished quality of life, failure to prosper in business, and obstructed career progress. The Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth also notes: “The mind intoxicated by desire stumbles in confusion.”[31]Here, greed is likened to alcohol, clouding judgment and ensnaring individuals in intoxication, making it hard to break free and ultimately leading to endless suffering.

In modern society, such examples abound. In early 2020, during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, an entrepreneur saw skyrocketing demand for masks and greedily hoarded a large stockpile, intending to sell them at ten times the price. However, swift government price controls and imported supplies saturated the market, leaving the masks unsold. The entrepreneur went bankrupt and faced legal penalties, losing both wealth and social standing.[32]This case vividly demonstrates how greed leads to negative retribution. The entrepreneur’s greed not only ruined his own economic interests but also eroded societal trust. This exemplifies Buddhism’s theory of “karmic retribution”—every action bears its consequences. Greed, like a seed, plants a bad cause that inevitably reaps a bitter fruit.

（Ⅲ） Spiritual Level: Binding to Samsara

Greed’s greatest harm to spiritual practice lies in binding individuals to the cycle of samsara, making liberation elusive. The story of Su Dongpo and Zen Master Foyin serves as a cautionary tale. During the Xining era of Emperor Shenzong in the Song Dynasty, Su Dongpo, a brilliant scholar and official who rose to the rank of Hanlin Academician, was deeply proud of his talents. He composed a poem: “The eight winds cannot move me, seated upright on a purple-golden lotus,” believing his cultivation was profound, and sent it to Zen Master Foyin for critique. Unexpectedly, the master scrawled only two words in response: “Fart!” This struck Su Dongpo’s pride, igniting his anger. Ignoring the long distance, he crossed the river by boat to confront the master.[33]

In this case, Su Dongpo’s greed for reputation and his fragile self-identity were laid bare. Eager to prove his spiritual attainment, he was thrown into turmoil by a single criticism, revealing what Buddhism calls the “suffering of not getting what one desires”—a direct result of ignorance driving his craving for acclaim. The Treatise on Realization states: “Moreover, this greed constantly causes sentient beings to flow with the current of birth and death, far from nirvana.”[34]This suggests that greed acts like a rope, tightly binding individuals to samsara and preventing them from reaching the shore of nirvana.

From a psychological perspective, Su Dongpo’s reaction reflects “self-enhancement bias,” where excessive self-focus amplifies feelings of frustration. When self-esteem is threatened, it readily triggers emotional instability and impulsive behavior.[35]Studies indicate that threats to self-esteem are a significant cause of aggressive actions.[36] This case illustrates that even subtle greed, such as attachment to reputation, is sufficient to obstruct liberation and distance one from nirvana.

（Ⅳ）Comprehensive Impact

The harms of greed manifest across multiple dimensions: internally, it damages body and mind (e.g., Lady Lu’s illness and death, impairing health and consciousness); externally, it invites negative consequences (e.g., the entrepreneur’s bankruptcy, costing wealth and status); and over the long term, it binds one to samsara (e.g., Su Dongpo’s attachment to reputation, distancing him from liberation). The Treatise on Realization likens greed to “a vast ocean, boundless and bottomless, with deep waves and swirling currents, teeming with dangerous creatures and demons,” [37]emphasizing its immeasurable depth and peril. The Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire states: “These five desires arise from causes and conditions, and the mind deems them pleasurable.”[38]This reveals greed’s deceptive nature: though it offers fleeting joy, it unleashes boundless suffering.

The modern frenzy for luxury goods under consumer culture further confirms greed’s harm. In 2021, the global luxury market reached $330 billion,[39]with many individuals accruing debt to chase designer brands. This phenomenon illustrates how greed constructs a closed loop of suffering, ensnaring people deeply within it.

V. Buddhist Practices for Subduing Greed

（Ⅰ）The Method of Recognizing Illusion: Breaking Attachment to Inherent Reality

The Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra states: “Tolerance of sound, tolerance of compliance, tolerance of the unarisen nature of phenomena, tolerance of illusion, tolerance of flame, tolerance of dream, tolerance of echo, tolerance of shadow, tolerance of transformation, tolerance of emptiness.”[40]This passage lists ten forms of tolerance, emphasizing that all phenomena are illusory and lack true reality. This method uses Right View to dismantle the foundation of greed, helping practitioners fundamentally recognize the illusory nature of phenomena. In practice, by contemplating the five aggregates (form, sensation, perception, formation, consciousness), the twelve sense bases (six faculties and six objects), and the eighteen realms (six faculties, six objects, six consciousnesses) as products of dependent co-arising, one can break free from attachment. For instance, viewing wealth as a dream—present in the morning, gone by evening, fragile as a bubble—reduces greed for riches. The Sutra in Forty-Two Chapters also teaches,Contemplate heaven and earth as mere illusions,[41]to dispel clinging to worldly things. Through this approach, practitioners gradually release attachment to external objects, achieving inner liberation.

（Ⅱ）The Method of Wisdom: Purifying Mind and Conduct

The method of wisdom unfolds in four progressive steps:

1. Awareness: Recognize the faults of greed and the peace of freedom from it. The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “It is neither tranquil nor joyful.”[42]Practitioners must understand that greed invites the eight sufferings (e.g., the suffering of not getting what one desires), while abandoning greed purifies the mind.
2. Shame: Detect greed as it arises and cultivate remorse. For example, when tempted by delicious food, one might ask, “What benefit does this desire bring?” Generating shame halts it in its infancy.
3. Repentance: Confess unwholesome actions, such as daily reflecting on greedy behavior and repenting before the Buddha. For instance, “Today I indulged in greed for food; I vow to break this habit.”
4. Aspiration: Make vows to benefit others, transforming the mind through great resolve. As the Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra states: “May all sentient beings attain lovable joy, free from the bounds of greed, realizing all phenomena as ultimately non-dual and cutting off all obstacles; may all sentient beings attain lovable joy, free from the bounds of greed, realizing the equal truth of all phenomena.”[43]By making such vast vows, one severs all greed.

（Ⅲ）The Method of Contemplation: Transforming Perception

Buddhist contemplation practices, such as the contemplation of impurity, impermanence, and suffering, aim to transform perceptions of the five desires, thereby weakening greed. The Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom states: “Contemplate the body as impure, sensations as suffering, the mind as impermanent, and phenomena as without self.” [44]This provides practitioners with a clear direction for transforming their cognition.

The contemplation of impurity involves visualizing the body’s unclean nature to sever attachment to physical form. Practitioners might imagine the body as skin encasing flesh and blood, with nine orifices leaking filth, ultimately destined to decay. For example, someone greedy for gourmet food can contemplate how it turns into foul excrement after digestion, thus cutting off their craving. Likewise, someone attached to beauty can visualize its inevitable end in aging, sickness, and death, extinguishing their fixation.

The contemplation of impermanence focuses on observing the ceaseless flux of all things, recognizing that everything in the world is subject to constant change. The Great Nirvana Sutra states: “Impermanence is suffering,”[45]revealing the intimate link between transience and pain. Practitioners might contemplate how a luxurious mansion crumbles to dust after a century or a prestigious car rusts into scrap, reducing greed for material possessions. For those craving power, reflecting on how historical emperors and generals ultimately return to dust can extinguish their desire for authority.

The contemplation of suffering delves deeper into realizing that the world is inherently full of suffering. The Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra declares: “The pleasures of the world are nothing but suffering. They are the realm of demons, coveted by the foolish, condemned by the Buddhas; all afflictions arise from them. Hell, hungry ghosts, animals, the domain of Yama, anger, strife, lawsuits, mutual slander—all such evils stem from attachment to the five desires. Clinging to the five desires distances one from the Buddhas, obstructs rebirth in the heavens, let alone attainment of supreme, perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi)!”[46]This passage explicitly identifies attachment to the five desires as the root of all suffering.

These contemplation practices sever the fuel of greed through correct understanding. The Compendium of Mahayana Meanings states: “Defiled attachment is called greed,”[47]pinpointing greed’s essence as clinging affection. By employing wisdom to cut through this defilement, contemplation helps practitioners fundamentally break free from the shackles of greed.

（Ⅳ）Bodhicitta: Transcending the Self

Bodhicitta, the mind of enlightenment, is a pivotal force in transcending personal greed. The Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth mentions that for the sake of attaining supreme, perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi), one does not hesitate to sacrifice their body and life.[48]By arousing bodhicitta and practicing the Thirty-Seven Aids to Enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, practitioners can rise above individual greed, breaking free from the confines of the small self. Similarly, the Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra states, Bodhicitta is as vast as the Dharma realm.[49]This boundless bodhicitta encompasses everything, surpassing narrow personal desires and guiding one toward the path of liberation.

（Ⅴ）Modern Applications and Validation

The aforementioned methods progress in layers: the method of recognizing illusion breaks attachment (Right View), the method of wisdom purifies the mind (Right Conduct), the method of contemplation transforms perception (Right Understanding), and bodhicitta elevates the mind (Right Aspiration). These facets of Buddhist wisdom find application and validation in modern society. Contemporary mindfulness therapy, which emphasizes present-moment awareness and letting go of clinging,[50]shares a striking similarity with Buddhism’s principles for overcoming greed. For example, a person prone to overeating practiced mindful eating—observing the taste and sensation of fullness with each bite—and within weeks reduced their food intake by half. Research shows that mindfulness meditation can decrease material dependency and impulsive behavior.[51]One study found that an 8-week mindfulness training reduced participants’ cravings for sweets by 30%.[52]

Furthermore, neuroscience provides scientific backing for these Buddhist practices. Studies indicate that mindfulness can reduce overactivity in the amygdala, the brain region tied to emotional reactivity, aligning with Buddhism’s emphasis on a “tranquil mind.”[53]These modern scientific validations not only highlight the scientific basis of Buddhist practices but also affirm their universal applicability.

VI. Conclusion

This paper has thoroughly explored the multifaceted nature of greed as the root of suffering. The Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra states: “If greed is extinguished, with nothing to rely upon, all suffering is eradicated.”[54]This clearly underscores that severing greed is the key to liberation from pain. Through analyzing cases such as Lady Lu’s illness and death, the entrepreneur’s bankruptcy, and Su Dongpo’s fixation on reputation, this study has illuminated greed’s harms: internally damaging body and mind, externally inviting negative consequences, and perpetually binding one to samsara. It has proposed a systematic path to uproot greed—breaking attachment with the method of recognizing illusion, purifying the mind with the method of wisdom, transforming perception with the method of contemplation, and elevating the mind with bodhicitta. These approaches progress layer by layer, aiming to help practitioners fundamentally free themselves from greed’s shackles. Greed arises from ignorance and clinging, and through Buddhist wisdom, liberation from it can be achieved.

Beyond deepening the philosophical and psychological understanding of greed, this paper—through meticulous scriptural citations and case analyses—elucidates its causes and harms while offering practitioners a detailed practical framework. From cognitive transformation to behavioral change, it guides the gradual purification of mind and conduct.

Looking ahead, the integration of Buddhist wisdom with modern science—such as the convergence of mindfulness therapy and neuroscience research—will open new avenues for addressing contemporary challenges of greed (e.g., consumerism). This fusion promises to aid sentient beings in attaining purity, peace, and ultimate liberation.

References

I. Buddhist Scriptures

1. Translated by Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Dharmaratna (Later Han Dynasty): Sutra in Forty-Two Chapters, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
2. Translated by Dharmarakṣa (Western Jin Dynasty): Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
3. Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on Realization, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 32.
4. Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 25.
5. Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra, Volume 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 9.
6. Translated by Dharmakṣema (Northern Liang Dynasty): Great Nirvana Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 12.
7. Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
8. Authored by Huiyuan (Sui Dynasty): Compendium of Mahayana Meanings, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 44.
9. Translated by Jñānagupta (Sui Dynasty): Sutra of the Buddha’s Original Deeds, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3.
10. Translated by Fazhi (Sui Dynasty): Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Elder Shujia on the Differences in Karmic Retribution, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 1.
11. Translated by Bodhiruci (Tang Dynasty): Great Jewel Heap Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 11.
12. Translated by Dharmaruci (Tang Dynasty): Sutra on the Rain of Treasures, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 16.
13. Translated by Xuanzang (Tang Dynasty): Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 31.
14. Translated by Prajñā (Tang Dynasty): Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3.
15. Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10.
16. Translated by Rizhao and others (Song Dynasty): Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Deeds, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17.
17. Authored by National Master Zhongfeng (Yuan Dynasty): Three Periods of Recollecting the Buddha, Newly Compiled Continuation of the Tripitaka, Volume 74.
18. Translator Unknown: Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to the Five Kings, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 14.

II. Other Sources

1. Pew Research Center (2021). Social Media Use in 2021. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org.
2. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396.
3. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210.
4. Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Desire for status and conspicuous consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3), 389-399.
5. Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3), 199-207.
6. Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological Review, 114(4), 843-863.
7. Drewnowski, A. (1997). Taste preferences and food intake. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 237-253.
8. Tang, L., et al. (2016). Ingredient labeling and health claims influencing consumer perceptions, purchase intentions, and willingness to pay. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 4, 352-367.
9. Frijda, N. H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10.  Berridge, K. C. (2009). ‘Liking’ and ‘wanting’ food rewards: Brain substrates and roles in eating disorders. Physiology & Behavior, 97(5), 537-550.
11.  Hu, F. B., et al. (2001). Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790-797.
12.  Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite, 52(2), 430-436.
13.  Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty. New York: Freeman.
14.  Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Psychological Review, 105(2), 219-229.
15.  Bain & Company (2021). Luxury Goods Worldwide Market Study.
16.  Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Delta.
17.  Bowen, S., et al. (2014). Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for substance use disorders: A pilot efficacy trial. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 46(5), 548-554.
18.  Kober, H., et al. (2017). Mindfulness-based interventions reduce craving: Behavioral and neural mechanisms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 179, 432-438.
19.  Desbordes, G., et al. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(12), 1445-1452.
20.  Compiled by Li Fang (Song Dynasty): Extensive Records of the Taiping Era. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/taiping-guangji/zh, accessed March 9, 2025.
21.  Authored by Su Shi (Song Dynasty): Complete Works of Dongpo. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=873515&remap=gb, accessed March 9, 2025.
22.  Compiled by Ouyang Xiu et al. (Northern Song Dynasty): New Book of Tang, Volume 73. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=506004&remap=gb, accessed March 10, 2025.
23.  Han Dian (pseudonym). Retrieved from https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E8%B2%AA, accessed March 9, 2025.
24.  Tencent News (pseudonym): “Queuing at Luxury Brand Stores in Guangzhou and Shenzhen Becomes Routine—Why Are This Generation’s Young People So Willing to Spend?” Retrieved from https://news.qq.com/rain/a/20210119A0G6H000, accessed March 11, 2025.
25.  China Daily (pseudonym). Retrieved from https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, accessed March 11, 2025.
26.  Public Television Service News (pseudonym): “Hoarding Large Quantities of Masks for Resale Profit—Police Trace the Source.” Retrieved from https://news.pts.org.tw/article/474711, accessed March 9, 2025.

（Note: Some sources are academic journal articles or books without individual website links. These can be accessed through libraries or academic databases.)

---

[1] Authored by National Master Zhongfeng (Yuan Dynasty): Three Periods of Recollecting the Buddha, Volume 1, Newly Compiled Continuation of the Tripitaka, Volume 74, p. 58a.

[2] Pew Research Center (2021). Social Media Use in 2021. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2021/04/07/social-media-use-in-2021/, accessed March 9, 2025.

[3] Han Dian (pseudonym). Retrieved from https://www.zdic.net/hans/%E8%B2%AA, accessed March 9, 2025.

[4] Compiled by Ouyang Xiu et al. (Northern Song Dynasty): New Book of Tang, Volume 73. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=506004&remap=gb, accessed March 10, 2025.

[5] Translated by Rizhao and others (Song Dynasty): Sutra on the Ten Unwholesome Deeds, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 458a.

[6] Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, pp. 6a-b.

[7] Translated by Bodhiruci (Tang Dynasty): Great Jewel Heap Sutra, Volume 44, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 11, p. 257c.

[8] Translated by Dharmaruci (Tang Dynasty): Sutra on the Rain of Treasures, Volume 2: “What is upper-level greed? It refers to greed pervading body and mind, following base inclinations, with the mind constantly defiled, lacking shame or guilt at all times… Such a greedy person, due to these causes and conditions, is born in evil realms; hence it is called intensified greed. What is middle-level greed? It refers to one who, after indulging in greed, soon feels aversion, gives rise to regret, and no longer follows it—this is called middle-level greed. What is lower-level greed? It refers to one who, when greed arises, upon touching the body, exchanging a few words, or merely seeing something, soon has their desire subside—this is called lower-level greed. All attachments to the means of sustaining life are collectively termed greed.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 16, pp. 290b-c.

[9] Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fh0054346, accessed March 10, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[10] Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193-210. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-2909.103.2.193, accessed March 10, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[11] Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2008). Desire for status and conspicuous consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3), 389-399. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/jcr, accessed March 10, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[12] Schultz, W. (2000). Multiple reward signals in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 1(3), 199-207. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/35044563, accessed March 10, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[13] Translated by Dharmarakṣa (Western Jin Dynasty): Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, pp. 539b-c.

[14] Authored by Huiyuan (Sui Dynasty): Compendium of Mahayana Meanings, Volume 5, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 44, p. 570a.

[15] Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 6b.

[16] Wood, W., & Neal, D. T. (2007). A new look at habits and the habit-goal interface. Psychological Review, 114(4), 843-863. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-295X.114.4.843, accessed March 11, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[17] Tencent News: “Queuing at Luxury Brand Stores in Guangzhou and Shenzhen Becomes Routine—Why Are This Generation’s Young People So Willing to Spend?” Retrieved from https://news.qq.com/rain/a/20210119A0G6H000, accessed March 11, 2025.

[18] Translator Unknown: Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to the Five Kings, Volume 1: “What is the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks? A household has wealth and money, spends it freely, pursues high office, and the officials and people hope for riches and honor. They diligently strive for it without ceasing, eventually attaining it, becoming a frontier magistrate. But not long after, they greedily seize the people’s goods, are accused by others, and one morning, due to some incident, are carted away in a prison wagon. At the moment of facing execution, their anguish is immeasurable, unsure whether they will live or die and when.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 14, p. 796c.

[19] Same note 2.

[20] Drewnowski, A. (1997). Taste preferences and food intake. Annual Review of Nutrition, 17, 237-253. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.17.1.237, accessed March 11, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[21] Tang, L., et al. (2016). Ingredient labeling and health claims influencing consumer perceptions, purchase intentions, and willingness to pay. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 4, 352-367. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/15378020.2016.1181507, accessed March 11, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[22] China Daily. Retrieved from https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/, accessed March 11, 2025.

[23] Translated by Xuanzang (Tang Dynasty): Treatise on the Demonstration of Consciousness-Only, Volume 6, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 31, p. 31b.

[24] Frijda, N. H. (1986). The Emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/, accessed March 11, 2025. (Subscription or purchase required)

[25] Berridge, K. C. (2009). ‘Liking’ and ‘wanting’ food rewards: Brain substrates and roles in eating disorders. Physiology & Behavior, 97(5), 537-550. Retrieved from https://www.elsevier.com/, accessed March 11, 2025. (Subscription or institutional access required)

[26] Compiled by Li Fang (Song Dynasty): Extensive Records of the Taiping Era. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/taiping-guangji/zh, accessed March 9, 2025.

[27] Hu, F. B., et al. (2001). Diet, lifestyle, and the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in women. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(11), 790-797. Retrieved from https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa010492, accessed March 11, 2025.

[28] Gearhardt, A. N., Corbin, W. R., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Preliminary validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale. Appetite, 52(2), 430-436. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.003, accessed March 11, 2025.

[29] Translated by Jñānagupta (Sui Dynasty): Sutra of the Buddha’s Original Deeds, Volume 18, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3, p. 737a.

[30] Translated by Fazhi (Sui Dynasty): Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to Elder Shujia on the Differences in Karmic Retribution, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 1, p. 894b.

[31] Translated by Prajñā (Tang Dynasty): Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth, Volume 6, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3, p. 318a.

[32] Public Television Service News: “Hoarding Large Quantities of Masks for Resale Profit—Police Trace the Source.” Retrieved from https://news.pts.org.tw/article/474711, accessed March 9, 2025.

[33] Authored by Su Shi (Song Dynasty): Complete Works of Dongpo. Retrieved from https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&res=873515&remap=gb, accessed March 9, 2025.

[34] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on Realization, Volume 9, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 32, p. 310b.

[35] Baumeister, R. F. (1997). Evil: Inside Human Violence and Cruelty. New York: Freeman. Retrieved from https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780805071658/evil, accessed March 11, 2025. (Purchase link)

[36] Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Psychological Review, 105(2), 219-229. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0033-29, accessed March 11, 2025. (Subscription required)

[37] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on Realization, Volume 9, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 32, p. 311a.

[38] Translated by Dharmarakṣa (Western Jin Dynasty): Sutra on the Suffering Caused by Desire, Volume 1, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 539c.

[39] Bain & Company (2021). Luxury Goods Worldwide Market Study. Retrieved from https://www.bain.cn/, accessed March 9, 2025.

[40] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 44, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, p. 232b.

[41] Translated by Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Dharmaratna (Later Han Dynasty): Sutra in Forty-Two Chapters, Volume 1: “I regard the positions of lords and princes as passing travelers, the treasures of gold and jade as mere pebbles, the finery of silk and linen as tattered cloth. I see the vast trichiliocosm as a single hazel seed, the waters of the four oceans as oil for anointing the feet, expedient means as a raft of precious jewels, the supreme vehicle as a dream of gold and silk, the pursuit of the Buddha’s path as flowers before the eyes, the pursuit of meditative concentration as the pillar of Mount Sumeru, the pursuit of nirvana as awakening day and night, the distinction of right and wrong as the dance of six dragons, equality as the one true ground, and the flourishing of transformation as the trees of the four seasons.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, p. 724a.

[42] Translated by Prajñāruci (Yuan Wei Dynasty): Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma, Volume 1: “What is greed? Regarding things belonging to others, one’s mind discriminates, desiring to obtain them without proper observation. Such a person delights in others’ possessions, becoming distressed without cause or entitlement, hoping to acquire them—this is called the unwholesome mental deed of greed, neither lovable nor joyful; the resulting retribution is not in accord with the mind, neither tranquil nor peaceful, nor joyful.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 17, pp. 6a-b.

[43] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 30, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, p. 162a.

[44] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Treatise on the Perfection of Great Wisdom, Volume 19, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 25, p. 198c.

[45] Translated by Dharmakṣema (Northern Liang Dynasty): Great Nirvana Sutra, Volume 38, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 12, p. 588c.

[46] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 23, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, pp. 125c-126a.

[47] Authored by Huiyuan (Sui Dynasty): Compendium of Mahayana Meanings, Volume 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 44, p. 492c.

[48] Translated by Prajñā (Tang Dynasty): Great Vehicle Sutra on Contemplating the Mind-Ground of Original Birth, Volume 6: “If a disciple of the Buddha arouses bodhicitta, seeking supreme, perfect enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sambodhi) while dwelling in an aranya, practicing these thirty-seven contemplations and teaching others this essential Dharma, explaining, transcribing, upholding, and reciting it, they will distance themselves from all attachments to self and what belongs to self, permanently severing greed for the worldly pleasures of the five desires. They will swiftly attain unshakable faith, seeking great bodhi without sparing their body or life—how much less worldly treasures? In this very life, they will surely perfect the adamantine wisdom seal of all Tathagatas, never regressing from the supreme path, swiftly fulfilling the six perfections and myriad practices, and quickly attaining supreme, perfect enlightenment.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 3, p. 322a.

[49] Translated by Śikṣānanda (Tang Dynasty): Great Expansive Flower Adornment Sutra, Volume 25: “Abiding in the boundless wisdom and power of bodhicitta, vast as the Dharma realm, ultimate as the void.” Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 10, p. 134c.

[50] Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. New York: Delta. Retrieved from https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/, accessed March 12, 2025. (Purchase link)

[51] Bowen, S., et al. (2014). Mindfulness-based relapse prevention for substance use disorders: A pilot efficacy trial. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 46(5), 548-554. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/, accessed March 12, 2025. (Purchase link)

[52] Kober, H., et al. (2017). Mindfulness-based interventions reduce craving: Behavioral and neural mechanisms. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 179, 432-438. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/, accessed March 12, 2025. (Subscription required; purchase link)

[53] Desbordes, G., et al. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(12), 1445-1452. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/, accessed March 12, 2025. (Purchase link)

[54] Translated by Kumārajīva (Yao Qin Dynasty): Wonderful Dharma Lotus Sutra, Volume 2, Taisho Tripitaka, Volume 9, p. 15a.