I.Introduction
The Tathagata Shakyamuni Buddha, the teacher of our Saha world, came into this world with great compassion to enable all sentient beings to understand the nature of suffering and happiness[1]. Understanding the nature of suffering and happiness is to attain Buddha-knowledge and Buddha-vision, which is the primary purpose of the Buddha’s appearance in the world.[2]
Sentient beings, trapped in ignorance and afflictions, create countless negative karmas, inevitably leading to all kinds of suffering and calamities. How can one awaken wisdom, dispel delusion and ignorance, and truly understand the nature of suffering and happiness? This paper takes the concept of “ignorance” (or “mental formation”) as its primary focus, drawing primarily from the Surangama Sutra translated by Paramiti during the Tang Dynasty. With the support of other sutras, this study will explore the definition and fundamental nature of “ignorance,” as well as the specific methods for eliminating it and cultivating wisdom, and the extraordinary merits that arise from a purified mind. Finally, the paper will discuss the common mistake of “ignorance as a practice,” cautioning practitioners against using afflictions as aids in cultivation. By prioritizing wisdom, one can ultimately eradicate all ignorance and cultivate the boundless virtues of compassion, loving-kindness, joy, and equanimity.
Ⅱ. A Study on the Definition and Fundamental Nature of Ignorance
(I).A Study on the Definition of Ignorance
Ignorance, also known as delusional thinking, wild speculation, or mental fabrication, is synonymous with mental formation (saṅkhāra) and the obscuration of afflictions. It manifests as a mind that randomly combines and conflates past experiences, endlessly chasing after these mental fabrications. This thinking process is uncontrollable; whatever one sees, hears, or perceives, the mind will immediately generate thoughts about it, even fabricating things that do not exist.
Ignorance is also known as avidyā, wrong view, and foolishness. The definitions of ignorance and its relationship to avidyā, wrong view, and foolishness, as found in various scriptures, are presented in Table 1.
Table 1.
| Scripture | Correlation：Ignorance = Avidyā = Wrong View = Foolishness |
| Surangama Sutra Vol. 10: “It is through your thoughts and conceptions that your physical form exists. Since your body is not a product of thought, why does your body follow your thoughts? You constantly create various images, and your mind forms corresponding thoughts. When awake, you think; when asleep, you dream. Thus, your thoughts, fluctuating and deceitful, are called the third delusion of mental fabrication.”[3] Vol. 2: “It is like someone talking about sour plums, and then water comes out of their mouth, or thinking about stepping on a cliff, and feeling a sour sensation in their feet. Mental formation is like this. Ānanda, just as the taste of sourness does not arise from the plums, nor does it enter from the mouth, so too, Ānanda, if the taste of sourness arose from the plums, the plums would have to speak for themselves, and there would be no need for someone else to talk about it. If it entered from the mouth, the mouth itself would have to hear it, and there would be no need for the ears. If it were only heard by the ears, why would this water not come out of the ears? Thinking about stepping on a cliff is similar to this. Therefore, it should be understood that mental formation is illusory and is neither caused by conditions nor is it naturally existent.”[4] Vol. 4: “Moreover, when you recall, recite, and study in your mind, your nature gives rise to perceptions that manifest the six sense objects. Separated from the sense objects, there is no form; separated from consciousness, there is no nature. These fabricated forms and natures are woven together, and this is the third level, called the afflictive obscuration.”[5] Vol. 9: “Ānanda, when a good man cultivates samādhi and the consciousness of feeling is exhausted, although the outflows are not yet exhausted and the mind is still attached to the form, it is like a bird that has escaped from its cage and is already able to accomplish. From this ordinary body, he will pass through the sixty stages of a bodhisattva, and he will be able to produce a spiritual body and go wherever he wishes without hindrance. This is like someone who is sound asleep and talking in their sleep. Although this person does not know anything else, their speech has already formed sounds and sequences, allowing those who are not asleep to understand their words. This is called the realm of mental formation. If the fluctuations of thought and all floating thoughts are eliminated, and the mind is as clear as a spotless mirror, then one will have a complete and thorough understanding of the origination and cessation of life and death. This is called the exhaustion of mental formation, and such a person can transcend the afflictive obscuration. By observing its origin, one realizes that it is based on mental fabrication.”[6] | Ignorance = Wild speculation = Mental fabrication = Afflictive obscuration |
| Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya Vol. 4: “Ignorance is explained as foolishness, which is the same as avidyā. It is characterized by a lack of wisdom and clarity, as well as laziness, laxity, and disbelief.”[7] | Ignorance = Foolishness = Avidyā |
| Surangama Sutra Vol. 5: “Therefore, now that you know and see, this very act of knowing is the origin of avidyā. When there is no knowing and no seeing, this is nirvana, pure and without outflows. How can there be room for anything else in this?”[8] Surangama Sutra Vol. 8: “Eighthly, when perception and habit intersect, it is like the view of self, precepts, and views, which leads to a wrong understanding of actions and gives rise to resistance and opposition. Thus, there are royal messengers, officials, witnesses, documents, and records; just as travelers meet and interact on the road, so too, when these two habits intersect, there are investigations, deceptions, examinations, interrogations, inspections, and scrutinies, as well as good and bad children who hold documents and argue about various matters. Therefore, all the Thus Come Ones of the ten directions see this evil view of form as a pitfall; bodhisattvas see all illusory attachments as falling into a poisonous abyss.”[9] Commentary on the Treatise on the Discriminations of the Eight Consciousnesses “What is ignorance? It is to be deluded about all objects and to mistake them for illusory appearances. Due to a lack of understanding of the true nature of things, one misinterprets them. Therefore, one develops a grasping mind towards all objects. This is ignorance. The Treatise says, ‘To be confused about all dharmas and to take them as one’s own nature is its nature; to obstruct the pure wisdom that is free from ignorance is its function.’[10][11] | Ignorance= Avidyā= Wrong view |
(Ⅱ). The Fundamental Nature of Ignorance
As Table 1 indicates, the root of ignorance is avidyā (ignorance). Therefore, the fundamental cause of afflictions is avidyā. The Mahāyāna Ratnakūṭa Sūtra states, “The śramaṇas say, ‘Greed, hatred, and delusion are neither internal nor external, nor intermediate. If there were no recollection, no false discrimination, greed, hatred, and delusion would not arise.'”[12] It is due to false discrimination (avidyā) and thinking that greed, hatred, and delusion arise. Moreover, the demon of afflictions is one of the five aggregates, specifically the mental formation. The Surangama Sutra elaborates on how all five aggregates are delusions.[13]Thus, thinking permeates all aspects of the five aggregates, but its core is mental formation. Therefore, the demon of afflictions is the root of the five aggregates, and the five aggregates are the result. The fundamental nature of ignorance is the creation of afflictions arising from deluded thinking.
As soon as sentient beings arise thoughts and intentions, afflictions follow. [14]When enveloped in ignorance, beings mistakenly believe they are enlightened; when holding wrong views, they think their views are correct; and when foolish, they intend to do good but end up creating bad karma and bringing misfortune upon themselves. As the Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva’s Vows Sūtra states, “In the southern continent of Jambudvīpa, all sentient beings, in their actions and thoughts, do nothing that is not karma and nothing that is not sin. How much more so for those who indulge in killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech, among countless other offenses?”[15] Therefore, the habitual thoughts of sentient beings are all rooted in ignorance, wrong views, and foolishness. Moreover, fueled by the ignorance and desire, sentient beings create the five aggregates through their body, speech, and mind. This physical form, composed of the five aggregates, constantly seeks to satisfy illusory sensations, as it is the result of the karma generated by greed. As the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra states, “Desire arises from attachment, life arises from desire, and sentient beings, attached to life, rely on desire as their basis. Desire is the cause, and attachment to life is the result.”[16]However, these sensations are merely delusions and are illusory.[17]Therefore, all sentient beings perceive the six sense objects through the lens of ignorance, and they constantly live in a state of ignorance.
The ephemeral nature of fleeting pleasures is akin to lightning, flickering into existence only to vanish in an instant.[18] Becoming ensnared in the pursuit of such momentary gratification inevitably leads to profound suffering. Over countless lifetimes, sentient beings have cultivated a tenacious habit of chasing after these fleeting pleasures, which in turn fuels the cycle of suffering. As beings indulge in their desires, they sow the seeds of future afflictions. These seeds, though seemingly insignificant at first, eventually grow into towering trees of suffering, with roots, trunk, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruit, all bearing the bitter taste of sorrow. Ignorant of the profound suffering that their pursuit of fleeting pleasure will bring, sentient beings remain trapped in the darkness of ignorance, clinging to momentary gratification without understanding the true nature of their desires.
We often believe that our perception of the world around us, including the people we see and the sounds we hear, is a clear and accurate reflection of reality. However, the Surangama Sutra asserts that the moment we form a conceptual understanding of what we perceive, we fall into the darkness of ignorance.[19]For instance, when Yevodatta looked into a mirror and saw only his reflection but not his own face, he mistakenly believed he had become a demon, revealing a fundamental misunderstanding of reality.[20]Building upon this foundation of ignorance, sentient beings become entangled with their afflictions. When they encounter something desirable, they cling to it with greed. When their desires are thwarted, they become angry. Continuously caught in this cycle of grasping and aversion, they engage in foolish and deluded actions with their bodies, speech, and minds, inevitably leading to endless suffering.
Therefore, ignorance is the root of foolishness. Delusional thoughts are the fundamental cause of evil actions and suffering. From the initial arising of a single thought rooted in ignorance, a series of deluded actions ensue, inevitably leading to a multitude of afflictions.
Ⅲ.Ignorance to Enlightenment
Having established that ignorance and foolishness are the root causes of all suffering, how can one transcend Ignorance and enlightenment.
(I). Observe Delusions without getting caught up in them
Delusions are seeds planted in the eight consciousnesses[21], and afflictions such as greed, anger, pride, and doubt are rooted in and fueled by the ignorant thoughts. As the Yongjia Zen Master stated, “The loss of Dharma, wealth, and merit all stem from this mind and consciousness.”[22] The Buddha also taught in the Forty-two Chapters that “The Buddha said to the Shamana, ‘Do not believe in your thoughts, for thoughts are ultimately unreliable. Do not associate with forms, for association with forms will bring about misfortune. Only upon attaining the Arhat path can you trust your thoughts.'”[23]Therefore, to overcome ignorance, it is crucial to pay utmost attention to delusions and to constantly observe one’s mind without allowing it to wander. It is essential to realize that each delusion is merely an arising and passing away, and it will naturally cease to exist. When delusions cease, enlightenment is attained.[24] As the mind is the master of the world, whatever one thinks becomes reality.[25] Sentient beings are constantly caught in delusions, which, due to erroneous perceptions, give rise to attachment. When these attachments intertwine with afflictions and fuel delusions, they perpetuate the cycle of birth and death, destroying all goodness and causing immeasurable suffering.
Sometimes, despite our aversion to greed, greedy thoughts spontaneously arise within our minds. These thoughts are mere delusions, nothing more than traces of past discriminations and perceptions.[26] Sentient beings are constantly entangled in these illusory appearances, clinging to fleeting phenomena. From whence do these delusions arise? They are born from our past experiences—sights, sounds, sensations, and mental impressions—that have left their traces on our consciousness. [27]These delusions are utterly unrelated to our true nature, which is our original, unconditioned mind. As the Buddha stated in the Surangama Sutra: “The Buddha said to Ananda, ‘This is the delusion of illusory appearances from past experiences that obscures your true nature. Due to your endless cycles of birth and death, you have mistaken the thief for your son and lost your original, constant nature.’ “[28] Therefore, the key to spiritual liberation lies in grasping this fundamental truth and constantly observing our thoughts, without allowing ourselves to be carried away by delusions.
(Ⅱ). Establishing Enlightenment
Mahayana Bodhisattvas understand that all phenomena are illusory and do not cling to the notion of real suffering or pleasure.[29]While these phenomena are illusory, they are not nonexistent; they arise and cease. From the highest realm of Buddhahood to the lowest of sentient beings, all is ultimately a manifestation of a single illusion. Suffering is illusory suffering, and pleasure is illusory pleasure. The ultimate reality is one’s own nature. As the Buddha stated in the fifth chapter of the Surangama Sutra: “Therefore, now, when you establish knowledge through perception, this is the root of ignorance; when you perceive without establishing knowledge, this is Nirvana, pure and without defilements. How can anything else exist within this?”[30]
From this, we can conclude that both ignorance and enlightenment are manifestations of one’s own nature, and thus one should act in accordance with the wisdom of enlightenment. When we know and see all things, we should not establish a fixed “knowledge” of them, nor should we label them as “good” or “bad.” For example, when we know that a certain food is delicious, we simply experience its taste when it is in our mouths. While the sensation of eating is pleasant, it can subsequently lead to countless sufferings. This is what is meant by “establishing enlightenment.” Ignorance, on the other hand, is not knowing that consuming delicious food will lead to a multitude of sufferings.
All sentient beings’ perceptions of “good” and “bad” through their six sense organs are merely “labored appearances” at their current level of understanding. [31]It is because the self defines something as “good” that it becomes “good”; conversely, if it is defined as “bad,” it becomes “bad.” In reality, these are all merely “labored appearances” manifested from one’s own nature and are nothing but delusions. Moreover, these perceived “goods” are merely fleeting delusional sensations. Although they are just delusions, they bring about far more suffering delusions than pleasurable ones, leading to the eight kinds of suffering and countless other afflictions. Understanding this principle allows one to shape their future destiny with wisdom. As the Surangama Sutra states in its fifth chapter:
And so, Ananda, together with the assembly, heard all the Buddhas of the ten directions, with one voice, say to Ananda: “Well done, Ananda! If you wish to know the innate ignorance that causes you to revolve in the cycle of birth and death, it is none other than your six sense organs. And if you wish to know the supreme enlightenment that brings you swiftly to the peaceful, liberated, and eternally wonderful state of bliss, it is also none other than your six sense organs.”[32]
The Buddha taught that it is the six sense organs that both enable the attainment of supreme enlightenment and cause the six realms of rebirth. For example, flavors: it is these very flavors that can lead to supreme enlightenment, and it is also these same flavors that can cause one to be reborn in the six realms. These flavors can bring eternal happiness, yet they can also bring immeasurable suffering within even a moment of pleasure. The Buddha did not deny this momentary pleasure, but he pointed out that this pleasure is accompanied by immeasurable suffering. As the Buddha said in the Forty-two Chapters: “The Buddha said, ‘Wealth and beauty to people are like a child’s fondness for honey on a knife’s edge. The sweetness is not enough to satisfy a single meal, yet it carries the risk of cutting one’s tongue.'”[33]Therefore, we must establish enlightenment and understanding to truly escape suffering and attain happiness.
(Ⅲ).Wisdom Cultivated Through Deep Study of the Scriptures
The Tripitaka, comprising the Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma, is an invaluable treasure bequeathed to sentient beings by the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and great masters. It is the crystallization of supreme wisdom. “By delving deeply into the scriptures, one’s wisdom becomes as vast as the sea.”[34]Through hearing, contemplating, and practicing the Dharma, one can cultivate and perfect wisdom.[35]
(Ⅳ). Diligent cultivation of Enlightenment
The insatiable nature of greed, coupled with the boundless capacity of delusion, is akin to a violent gale that can traverse thousands of miles in an instant. The mind, fueled by greed and delusion, can conjure up countless scenarios, even fabricating those that do not exist. It is imperative to cultivate awareness of the illusory nature of greed and delusion[36], as well as their interconnectedness.[37] Through sustained mindfulness and the cultivation of wisdom through hearing, pondering, and practicing, one can gradually eradicate ignorance, foolishness, and afflictions. As the Sutra states, “Because one cultivates enlightenment, one can depart from ignorance, preventing afflictions from gaining control. This is known as liberation from duality.”[38]
Ⅳ. The Exalted Merits Revealed Through the Purification of Consciousness
By relinquishing attachment to illusory phenomena and abiding in one’s true nature, the mind-consciousness can become purified upon the cessation of the interaction between the sense organs and their objects. Furthermore, the six sense organs can then function interdependently. As the Surangama Sutra (vol. 4) states, “If you simply do not follow the twelve conditioned phenomena—movement and stillness, coming together and separating, tranquility and change, openness and obstruction, birth and death, darkness and light—and as each of the six sense organs is detached from its respective object and returns to its original purity, its innate luminosity will manifest. When this luminosity manifests, the remaining attachments will naturally fall away. Thus, without relying on the preceding conditions, the mind-consciousness will manifest its luminosity, and the six sense organs will function interdependently.”[39]
The Lotus Sutra (vol. 6) provides a more detailed account of the sublime virtues that arise from the purification of the mind-consciousness.
Furthermore, O diligent Bodhisattva! If a man or woman, after the Tathagata’s passing, upholds this sūtra, whether by reading, reciting, explaining, or copying it, they will acquire one thousand two hundred mental merits. With this purified mind-consciousness, even upon hearing a single verse or phrase, they will comprehend immeasurable and boundless meanings. Having understood these meanings, they can expound upon a single verse or phrase for a month, four months, or even a year, and all their teachings, according to their respective meanings, will not contradict the ultimate truth. Even when speaking of worldly scriptures, governing a country, or earning a livelihood, all will be in accordance with the Dharma. They will know all the thoughts, actions, and discussions of sentient beings in the three thousand great thousand worlds and the six realms. Although they may not yet have attained arhatship, their mind-consciousness is thus purified. Whatever this person thinks, considers, or says is all Dharma, nothing is false, and it is all in accordance with the teachings of the Buddhas of the past.[40]
Once the mind-consciousness is purified, one can comprehend immeasurable and boundless Buddhist teachings. Whatever one says will be in accordance with the Dharma.
V. Frequent Errors and Delusions in Spiritual Cultivation
Among the three actions of body, speech, and mind, it is speech that is the most difficult to guard. Of all speech, the most easily violated is the false accusation of others. As the Sutra on the Obstructions to Pure Land states:
At that time, the Bodhisattva Manjushri asked the Buddha, “O World-Honored One, how is it that generosity, morality, patience, diligence, concentration, and wisdom can be obstacles?” The Buddha replied to Manjushri, “All dharmas are inherently without obstacles, but ordinary beings, due to their foolishness and lack of wisdom, create distinctions and see obstacles in generosity, morality, patience, diligence, concentration, and wisdom. Why is that? Manjushri, when foolish people practice generosity, they do not develop respect for those who are stingy, and due to their disrespect, they generate anger, and because of anger, they fall into the great hell. While maintaining their own precepts, they look down upon those who have broken the precepts, speak ill of them, and cause others to disrespect them. Due to this disrespect, they fall into the bad realms. While cultivating patience, they develop pride, thinking, ‘I am patient, while others are coarse and rude.’ Because of this pride, they become negligent, and this is the root of many sins. While practicing diligence, they think of the lazy, ‘Such foolish people should not eat the food offered to the Sangha, nor even drink a sip of water.’ They constantly exalt themselves and belittle others, and this is a sign of foolishness and lack of wisdom. While cultivating concentration, they think of those with wandering thoughts, ‘I always cultivate concentration, while other bhikshus have many wandering thoughts and speak of wrong views. Such people are far from the path, how can they attain Buddhahood?’ With such thoughts, for each thought, they will experience rebirth in the cycle of existence for one kalpa after another. After experiencing rebirth, they will only then begin to cultivate the Bodhi path. Relying on their extensive learning, they make false distinctions about the unconditioned with their incorrect wisdom, and upon seeing some attainment, they develop great pride, thinking, ‘I say that these people are great fools and without wisdom, covered by the defilements and not great persons.’ Although they aspire to the Mahayana path, they say, ‘I am the greatest in the world,’ and do not respect the Hearers and Pratyekabuddhas, but despise and insult them. Because of their evil minds and harsh words, they fall into the bad realms.” At that time, the Bodhisattva Manjushri asked the Buddha, “O World-Honored One, should Bodhisattvas not falsely speak ill of others in the Dharma?” The Buddha said, “Indeed, indeed, Manjushri. What do you think? Do Bodhisattvas not always cultivate compassion, loving-kindness, and mindfulness towards all beings, and do not look upon them with evil eyes?” Manjushri said, “Yes, it is so, O World-Honored One.”[41]
It can be inferred from this that even those who cultivate the six pāramitās, if they arise a single evil thought due to ignorance and afflictions, will experience countless kalpas of rebirth. The Bodhisattva precepts also prohibit speaking ill of the fourfold assembly or praising oneself while disparaging others, which are considered serious transgressions.[42]Therefore, those who are engaged in spiritual practice should not think about, look at, or speak of the faults of others. This is also a manifestation of cultivating loving-kindness.[43]
VI. Conclusion
This paper delves into the definition and fundamental nature of ignorance, how to abandon ignorance and establish wisdom, the extraordinary merits manifested by a purified mind-consciousness, and the common foolish actions committed during spiritual practice. The primary focus lies on the fundamental nature of ignorance and how to abandon ignorance and establish wisdom. It is hoped that practitioners can eradicate the fundamental afflictions of ignorance and quickly attain a purified mind-consciousness, thereby establishing wisdom and insight like the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and engaging in great Dharma activities.
Since sentient beings are constantly in a state of ignorance, the manifestations of foolish actions are countless. The ignorance discussed in this paper is merely the tip of the iceberg. A detailed investigation into the various manifestations of ignorance in daily life and methods to overcome them is still needed. I humbly request your kind guidance and corrections.
References
Ⅰ. Ancient texts (in chronological order of dynasties)
[Hou Han] The Forty-two Chapters, translated by Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Dharmārāma (T. 17)
[Hou Qin] The Lotus Sutra, translated by Kumarajiva (T. 09)
[Hou Qin] The Brahma Net Sutra, translated by Kumarajiva (T. 24)
[Běi liáng] The Upāsaka Precepts Sutra, translated by Dharmakṣema (T. 24)
[liáng] The Mahāyāna Treasury of Precious Clouds Sutra, translated by Mandarāva and Saṃghabhadra (T. 16)
[Sui] The Collection of Buddha’s Former Lives Sutra, translated by Jñānagupta (T. 03)
[Sui] The Sutra of the Bodhisattva of No-thingness, translated by Jñānagupta and others (T. 14)
[Tang] The Sutra of the Vows of Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva, translated by Śīlānanda (T. 13)
[Tang] The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, translated by Paramartha (T. 19)
[Tang] Commentary on the Abhidharma-kosa, composed by Shenguai (New Continuation Tripitaka, T. 53)
[Tang] The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra on Awakening, translated by Buddhatrāta (T. 17)
[Tang] The Song of Enlightenment, composed by Xuanzang (T. 48)
[Tang] The Mahāyāna Sutra on Contemplating the Mind of Bodhisattvas, translated by Prajñā (T. 03)
[Tang] The Avatamsaka Sutra, translated by Śīlānanda (T. 10)
[Tang] The Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness Only, translated by Xuanzang (T. 31)
[Tang] The Mahāvaipulya Sutra, translated by Xuanzang (T. 11)
[Ming] Comprehensive Discussions on the Śūraṅgama Sūtra, composed by Deqing (NewXuZang, T. 12)
[Qing] Commentary on the Treatise on the Regulation of the Eight Consciousnesses, compiled by Shanzhang and others (NewXuZang, T. 55)
The Sutra on the Obstructions to Pure Land, translator unknown (T. 24)
[1] Śīlābhadra, tr., The Sūtra of the Bodhisattva Mahāsattva Kṣitigarbha, Vol. 1, “At that time, from the ten directions came innumerable worlds, and all the innumerable Buddhas and Bodhisattvas gathered together. They praised the Buddha Shakyamuni, saying that he, in this world of five defilements, manifested the inconceivable power of great wisdom and supernatural powers to subdue obstinate beings and enable them to understand the nature of suffering and happiness, and each sent an attendant to greet the World-Honored One.” Tainen Shinsho, Vol. 13, p. 777.
[2] Kumarajiva, tr., The Sūtra of the Lotus Sutra, Vol., “How is it said that the Thus Come Ones, the World-Honored Ones, appear in the world for only one great matter? The Thus Come Ones, the World-Honored Ones, appear in the world to enable sentient beings to open their Buddha-knowledge and purify it; they appear in the world to show sentient beings the Buddha-knowledge; they appear in the world to enable sentient beings to realize the Buddha-knowledge; they appear in the world to enable sentient beings to enter the path of Buddha-knowledge.” Tainen Shinsho, Vol. 9, p. 7.
[3]-6 Paramartha, tr.,The Surangama Sutra, Vols. 10, 2, 4, and 9, respectively. Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p. 114-154.
7 Śāntarakṣita, tr., Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya, Vol. 4, Xinxuzang, Vol. 53 . p.36.
8-[9] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, Vols. 5 and 8, respectively. Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p. 124-144.
[10] Xuanzang , tr., The Treatise on the Establishment of the Only Vehicle, Vol. 6, “What is ignorance? Its nature is to be obscured and bewildered about all dharmas and matters. It obstructs wisdom and serves as the underlying condition for all defilements. It is said that due to ignorance, doubts, wrong views, greed, and other afflictions arise. Following the afflictive karma, one is destined for future lives of defilement.” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 31. p. 31.
[11] Shanzhang et al., tr., The Treatise on the Discriminations of the Eight Consciousnesses, Xinxuzang, Vol. 55. p. 455.
[12] Mandarava, Saṅghavarman, et al., tr., The Mahāyāna Ratnakūṭa Sūtra, vol. 7, Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 16, p. 282.
[13] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, vol. 10, “As the Buddha said, ‘In the five skandhas, the five kinds of delusion are fundamentally the mind of thinking.'” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 154.
[14] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, vol. 4, “For example, the qin, se, kōnghóu, and pípá, though they produce beautiful sounds, cannot be made to sound without skillful fingers. So too are you and all sentient beings. Your precious, awakened mind is perfectly complete. Just as I press my finger on the seal of the Dharma and light shines forth, so when you momentarily arouse your mind, afflictions arise first. Because you do not diligently seek the supreme bodhi, you are content with the small gains of the Lesser Vehicle.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 121.
[15] Śīlābhadra, tr., Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva’s Vows Sūtra, vol. 1, Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 13, p. 783.
[16] Buddhabhadra, tr., The Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 17, p. 916.
[17] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, vol. 2, “Therefore, know that the feeling skandha is illusory, not arising from causes and conditions, nor from a natural nature.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 114.
[18] Śāntideva, tr., Bodhicharyāvatāra, vol. 18, “The five desires of the world are impermanent and do not lead to ultimate happiness. They are like dew on grass, which quickly evaporates; like a fist, which deceives a child; like the heart of a banana tree, which contains no solid substance; like autumn clouds, which gather and disperse; like lightning, which flashes and disappears; like foam on water, which is unstable; like a mirage, which deceives people.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 3, p. 737.
[19] Same as note 8.
[20] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, vol. 4, “Have you not heard of Yevodatta in the city of Śrāvasti? Early one morning, he looked into a mirror and, seeing his head, eyebrows, and eyes in the mirror, but not seeing his own head, eyebrows, and eyes, he became angry and thought he had turned into a demon, and ran about madly.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 121.
[21] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, vol. 10, “The five skandhas originally arise in a mutually dependent way. Their arising is due to consciousness and their cessation is due to the cessation of form. In terms of principle, they can be extinguished all at once through sudden enlightenment, but in terms of practice, they must be gradually eliminated according to their causes.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 155.
[22] Xuanjue, The Yongjia Zen Master’s Song of Enlightenment, Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 48, p. 396.
[23] Kāśyapa Mātaṅga and Dharmarakṣa, tr., Forty-two Chapters, Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 17, p. 723.
[24] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra, vol. 4, “Simply do not follow the sequential arising of worldly phenomena, karma and its results, and sentient beings. When these three conditions are severed, the three causes will not arise. Then, the wild nature of your mind, like that of a monkey, will naturally subside. When it ceases, you will attain enlightenment. Your pure and luminous mind will inherently encompass the entire Dharma realm. It is not obtained from others; why bother with laborious and strenuous practices?” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 121.
[25] Prajñā,tr., The Mahāyāna Sutra on Contemplating the Mind of Bodhisattvas, vol. 8, “Through manifold similes, I explicate the nature of emptiness. Thus, it is understood that the three realms are but a single mind. This mind, endowed with great power, gives rise to worlds, and freely assumes the role of transformative lord.”Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 3, p. 328.
[26] Pāramitā, tr., Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāna Sūtra, Vol. 1, “If you cling to discriminative awareness, and consider the nature of what is known to be necessarily mind, then this mind should be distinct from all colors, scents, tastes, and tactile sensations. All these objects of consciousness have their own complete nature. For example, as you listen to my teaching now, you discriminate based on sound. Even if you extinguish all seeing, hearing, feeling, and knowing, and remain inwardly calm, you are still involved in the discriminative traces of objects of consciousness. I am not saying that you should not consider this to be mind. However, if you examine your mind closely, you will see that if there is a discriminative nature that is independent of objects, then that is your true mind. If the discriminative nature is without substance apart from objects, then it is merely the discriminative trace of objects. When objects are impermanent and cease to exist, this mind is like a tortoise’s hair or a hare’s horn. In that case, your dharmakāya would be annihilated. Who then could cultivate the forbearance of the unborn?” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 109.
[27] Pāramitā, tr., Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāna Sūtra, Vol. 10, “In this state of clear awareness, perfectly still and unshakable, what calculations are there in each and every moment of being conditioned?” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 154.
[28] Pāramitā, tr., Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāna Sūtra, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p.108.
[29] Śīlānanda, tr., Avatamsaka Sūtra, Vol. 16, “Wishing to place all the inconceivable Buddha-lands within the palm of one’s hand without moving them, and understanding that all things are like illusions, the bodhisattva generates this initial aspiration.” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 10, p. 86.
[30] Same as note 8.
[31] Pāramitā, tr., Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāna Sūtra, Vol. 3, “Ānanda, that very straining and tiring of the eyeball is identical with the straining and tiring of enlightenment.” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 114.
[32] Paramartha, tr., The Surangama Sutra: A Classification of the Bodhisattva’s Practices, vol. 5, Taishō Tripitaka,. Vol.19, p. 124.
[33] Kāśyapa Mātanga and Dharmarakṣa, tr., Forty-two Chapters, Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 17, p. 723.
[34] Prajñā, tr., Avatamsaka Sūtra, Vol. 14, “May all beings, diving deep into the ocean of sūtras, cultivate wisdom as vast as the sea itself.” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 10, p. 70.
[35] Dharmakṣema, tr., Upasaka-śīla, Vol. 7, “Thus, there are three kinds of wisdom: that which arises from hearing, that which arises from contemplation, and that which arises from practice. To grasp the meaning from the words is called wisdom arising from hearing; to understand the meaning through reflection is called wisdom arising from contemplation; and to realize the meaning through practice is called wisdom arising from practice.” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 24, p. 1075.
[36] Jñānagarbha et al., tr., Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Vol. 4, “For those whose thoughts are desires, their consciousness manifests as thoughts. When one realizes that these thoughts are illusory, there is no substantial reality to be found.” Taishō Tripitaka, Vol. 14, p. 693.
[37] Deqing , tr., the Surangama Sutra, Vol.8, “The six consciousnesses, by depending on the aggregation of qi and forming delusions, are like wind. Therefore, at the moment of death, one sees the wind carrying them to hell.” NewXuZang Tripitaka, Vol. 12, p. 628.
[38] Dharmakṣema, tr., Upāsakaśīla Sūtra, vol. 4, “Through the cultivation of prajñā, one departs from avidyā, thereby preventing all afflictions from running rampant. This is called liberation from duality.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 24, p.1053.
[39] Paramartha, tr., Mahā-pratyangīrā-rājasūtra, vol. 4, Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 19, p. 123。
[40] Kumarajiva, tr., Saddharma-puṇḍarīka Sūtra, vol. 6, Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 9, p. 50.
[41] Anonymous, tr., Buddha-śāsana-śuddha-karma-hīnāyana-sūtra, Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 24, p. 1097.
[42] Kumarajiva, tr., Brahmajāla Sūtra, vol. 2, “If, O son of a Buddha, a Bodhisattva, whether a monk, nun, householder, or renunciate, were to confess his or her own faults, or teach others to confess their faults, or to discuss the causes, conditions, nature, and karmic results of faults, and if, while hearing outsiders or Śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas speak falsely about the Dharma and Vinaya, the Bodhisattva were to feel compassion and teach these evil people, leading them to believe in the Mahāyāna, but were then to turn around and confess the faults within the Dharma, this would be a pārājika offense for a Bodhisattva. If, O son of a Buddha, a Bodhisattva were to praise oneself and criticize others, or teach others to do the same, or to discuss the causes, conditions, nature, and karmic results of criticizing others, whereas a Bodhisattva should bear the blame and reproach for all beings, taking upon oneself evil deeds and giving good deeds to others, but instead were to boast of one’s own virtues and conceal the good qualities of others, causing others to be slandered, this would also be a pārājika offense for a Bodhisattva.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 24, p. 1004.
[43] Xuanzang, tr., Mahāvaipulya Sūtra, vol. 41, “Such is the nature of compassion: one sees only the pure and excellent qualities of sentient beings, and does not see their faults and transgressions.” Taishō Tripitaka, vol. 11, p. 235.