Essay Writing of Buddhas’ Practice Incorporated
—–(Issue 6)—–

Why Does Greed Give Rise to the Eight Sufferings?

Instructor: Shi Wuguang
Author: Shi Fafu
September 20, 2021

I. Introduction

Over the past year, the BPI Institute has conducted a preliminary investigation into the five afflictions: greed, hatred, delusion, pride, and doubt. However, this is far from sufficient for the subduing of these afflictions. To thoroughly subdue the afflictions, one must observe in minute detail the manifestations of each affliction, thoroughly understand and recognize each affliction, and profoundly awaken to the suffering caused by each affliction. Based on this, this paper focuses on the research of how greed gives rise to the eight sufferings and the corresponding afflictions associated with these eight sufferings.

Drawing on classical texts as a basis, this paper primarily discusses how greed gives rise to the eight sufferings and their corresponding afflictions. It is hoped that through further research into the affliction of greed, a broader understanding can be achieved, leading to a clear and thorough understanding of the affliction of greed and ultimately to the complete subduing of greed and all afflictions.

II.Why does greed give rise to the eight sufferings?

(I).A comprehensive exploration of greed as the root cause of the eight sufferings

From time immemorial, sentient beings, clouded by ignorance and folly, have been creating various karmic actions. This all began with an initial moment of delusion that gave rise to consciousness of karma. This karmic consciousness then reincarnates, forming material forms, and eventually the six sense organs. From these six sense organs arises contact, leading to sensations of pleasure and pain.[1] Sensations give rise to craving, which in turn leads to grasping and the creation of further karma. When karma aligns with sensory experience, craving arises; when karma contradicts sensory experience, aversion arises. In this way, the eight sufferings, including birth, aging, sickness, and death, come into being. As the Lotus Sutra, Chapter 3, states: “From ignorance comes volitional activity; from volitional activity comes consciousness; from consciousness comes name and form; from name and form come the six sense bases; from the six sense bases comes contact; from contact comes sensation; from sensation comes craving; from craving comes grasping; from grasping comes becoming; from becoming comes birth; from birth comes aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair.”[2] Thus, it is clear that ignorance gives rise to craving, which, fueled by afflictions, leads to the creation of various evil karmic actions, resulting in the eight sufferings and countless other miseries. The Buddha-Nature Sutra, Chapter 34, also states: “What is called the origination of suffering? It is said: ‘This craving, constantly stirring the mind, gives rise to desirous thoughts, thinking about things here and there; this is called the origination of suffering.'”[3] Due to craving, one creates desirous actions and constantly thinks and worries, resulting in various sufferings.  

(Ⅱ). A brief exposition on the eight sufferings[4]

All sentient beings are born into existence due to sexual desire.[5] Upon the primordial, luminous, and self-natured mind, the initial moment of delusion (karmic tendencies, karmic consciousness), together with the karmic connections of the father, mother, and the being itself, gives rise to the phenomenon of rebirth in a mother’s womb, thus forming a physical body. This is the beginning of life.[6]

ⅰ. Birth suffering

Every person experiences the agony of birth, a process as painful as being torn apart by a thousand knives for both the mother and child. This is known as the suffering of birth.

Why is childbirth so painful? According to the principle of reaping what one has sown, it is due to the constriction of the reproductive organs caused by indulging in sexual desire.[7] However, the birth of enlightened beings is different. Their consciousness is indestructible. For instance, the births of Shakyamuni Buddha[8] and the Fifth Patriarch[9] exemplify this. Having attained mastery over physical phenomena, they could adapt to any situation and use their merit and supernatural powers to ensure a painless birth for their mothers, as recorded in scriptures and commentaries.

The following analysis explores the concept of “birth suffering” arising from greed, specifically focusing on the act of gluttony. Individuals who are habitually greedy for food carry this karmic imprint from birth, becoming inextricably bound to the act of eating. Separation from food results in hunger and ultimately death. This karmic pattern is inherent in human existence.[10] As the Shurangama Sutra (Volume 4) states:

When love and union are intertwined, and love cannot be separated, the endless cycle of parents and children is perpetuated in the world. This is rooted in the fundamental greed of desire. When greed and love mutually nourish each other, and greed cannot be halted, beings born from eggs, wombs, or moisture devour each other in a ceaseless struggle for survival, based on the fundamental greed of killing. For instance, humans consume sheep, and upon death, humans may become sheep, and vice versa. This cycle of birth and death continues through countless existences, where beings mutually devour one another, driven by the accumulated karma of evil. This is rooted in the fundamental greed of stealing. The debt of life is repaid, and the attachment of love and appearance binds beings for countless kalpas. Killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct are the three fundamental roots that perpetuate the cycle of cause and effect.”[11]

From the preceding analysis, it is evident that all sentient beings are entangled in a web of desire and aversion, driven by karmic forces, and caught in a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. This intricate interplay of cause and effect is perpetuated by the fundamental affliction of greed, which is the root cause of the suffering of existence.

ii.Disease suffering

Every part and organ of the human body is susceptible to disease, each ailment bringing its own unique form of suffering. Throughout one’s lifetime, pain is an inevitable companion, though its manifestation varies from person to person. By recalling the agony of illness, one can deeply comprehend the suffering caused by disease. When confronted with illness, a common scene unfolds: the patient endures immense pain, the family is helpless, and even the physician feels a sense of futility, creating a truly sorrowful situation. Moreover, a significant portion of illnesses can be traced back to overindulgence in food. The following table, derived from classical texts, provides examples to illustrate this point.

Table 1.

Gluttony and its Consequences: Illness, Premature Death, and Physical Deformities	Scriptural Basis
Excessive eating leads to many diseases.	The Sūtra on the Differences of Karmic Retributions: There are ten actions that lead to the karmic retribution of frequent illness. First, taking delight in harming all living beings；Second, encouraging others to harm; Third, praising harmful acts; Fourth, rejoicing in seeing others harmed；Fifth, disturbing one’s parents, causing them mental distress; Sixth, disturbing virtuous individuals；Seventh, rejoicing in the suffering of one’s enemies; Eighth, feeling unhappy when one’s enemies recover from illness; Ninth, giving the wrong medicine to one’s enemies when they are ill; Tenth, eating before the previous meal has been digested. By engaging in these ten actions, individuals accumulate negative karma that manifests as physical ailments.[12]
Consuming unripe grains results in frequent illnesses and a short lifespan.	The Sūtra on the Three Contemplations at Seven Places: The Buddha explained to a Brahmin: “The Brahmins of this world are deeply attached to worldly desires and engage in unwholesome actions. Due to their habitual engagement in these unwholesome actions, the movements of the sun and moon become irregular. Consequently, the stars, seasons, and timekeeping become disorderly. This leads to violent winds, untimely rainfall, poor harvests, and ultimately results in people, animals, and birds suffering from poor complexion, lack of strength, frequent illnesses, short lives, and poverty. This, O Brahmin, is the result of their actions.”[13]
Meat consumption leads to a short life and frequent illnesses.	The Sūtra on the Compassionate Reason of the All-Knowing Radiant Sage for Not Eating Meat: As the Buddha has said, those who consume meat have not fully cultivated compassion. They will constantly suffer from short lives and many illnesses, remain bewildered by the cycle of birth and death, and will not attain Buddhahood.”[14]
Overeating leads to many diseases.	The Sūtra on the Buddha’s Medicine states: The Buddha said: ” Excessive eating brings about five evils: excessive sleep, frequent illnesses, excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures, inability to recite scriptures, and excessive attachment to worldly affairs.” [15]
Overeating and consuming unsafe food can lead to premature death.	The Great Nirvana Sutra, Vols. 26： Good man, the lifespan of such a person is uncertain. Even if their lifespan is not exhausted, there are nine causes that can prematurely end their life. What are these nine? First, knowing that the food is not safe to consume, they eat it anyway. Second, they overeat. Third, they eat again before the previous meal has been digested. Fourth, they do not attend to their bodily needs at the appropriate times. Fifth, when ill, they do not follow medical advice. Sixth, they do not heed the instructions of those who care for the sick. Seventh, they force themselves not to vomit. Eighth, they travel at night and are thus attacked by evil spirits. Ninth, they engage in excessive sexual activity. For these reasons, I say that if a sick person encounters medicine and medical treatment, their illness can be cured. If not, it cannot be cured.[16]
Overeating results in a dull complexion.	The Fundamental Treatise on the Abhidharma Vinaya: , Vols. 2： Those beings who consume this particular flavor of food live long lives. If they eat little, their bodies will be radiant; if they eat much, their bodies will lack luster.[17]
Overeating leads to a coarse and ugly appearance.	The Āgamas of the Long Portion: Those who eat excessively will have coarse and ugly complexions, while those who eat sparingly will have a radiant and pleasing appearance.[18]

As shown in the table, gluttony can lead to Disease suffering.

iii.Old suffering

All sentient beings age with each passing moment, their three karmic actions becoming increasingly arduous. As one grows old, hair turns white and skin wrinkles. With the accumulation of negative karma throughout a lifetime, the sufferings of old age, sickness, and the arduousness of the three karmic actions become particularly pronounced. Even practitioners, though they may retain some spiritual radiance, find their physical bodies unable to compare with those of their youth. Bodily functions deteriorate, immune systems weaken, and many bodily processes become dormant, leading to higher rates of illness.

In old age, many find themselves alone and without support. In the Dharma-ending age, filial piety is waning. Children often treat their parents with the attitude of “cherishing them when they are young, but tiring of them in old age.” In many inland regions, the elderly lack even the most basic necessities for a decent life. Many elderly people rely almost entirely on reminiscing about past events to pass the time. The tragedy of outliving one’s children is a profound sorrow that words cannot fully express. The Chinese documentary “Silver Tsunami” offers a poignant portrayal of the hardships faced by the elderly in contemporary society.[19]

iv.Death suffering

At the moment of death, the nervous system separates from the physical body. As those versed in natural sciences understand, the human body is permeated by an extensive network of nerves, from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system. When a needle pierces this neural network, one experiences pain. The Surangama Sutra states that the four great elements (earth, water, fire, and wind) possess consciousness.[20] The intersection of the self-nature of perception, sensation, and cognition with the four great elements forms the foundational point of the nervous system, making its sensations particularly intense. As consciousness separates from a body permeated by nerves, it must pass through countless neural pathways, each separation causing immense suffering. This process, akin to tearing apart a neural network, is akin to a turtle shedding its shell. Thus, at the moment of death, individuals endure excruciating pain as their nervous systems completely detach from their bodies.

Chapter 8 of the Surangama Sutra elaborates on the concept of the “sixfold retribution” resulting from the ” ten habitual actions ” , describing the painful karmic experiences encountered at the moment of death. Depending on which of the six sense organs has committed a particular karma, that same sense organ will experience the corresponding karmic retribution.[21]

Without birth, there can be no death. Birth arises from greed for existence; therefore, the suffering of death is also rooted in greed.

v. Suffering of unsatisfied craving

All suffering arises from craving.[22]When there is a desire to obtain something, and that desire remains unfulfilled, the suffering of “unsatisfied craving” arises. For example, when one desires a particular food but the circumstances do not allow for its attainment, the mind becomes preoccupied and agitated, caught in a state of longing. This is suffering. The more objects of desire one has, the more intense the suffering of unsatisfied craving. We have all experienced this firsthand. In such a state of longing, can one truly concentrate on work, life, or spiritual practice? Can one accomplish their goals? Upon deeper examination, it becomes clear that this suffering of unsatisfied craving is rooted in desire.

Vi.Suffering of separation

Using the example of gluttony, if one has a particular fondness for a certain food, and it is suddenly consumed by another or the portion is too small, the resulting heartache is a manifestation of the suffering of separation. We often blame and resent others for encroaching upon our “territory” and lament the insufficiency of what we have obtained. However, we rarely reflect upon our own greed. Could the suffering of separation arise without attachment?

vii.Suffering of enmity

In pursuit of fleeting pleasures, individuals often engage in competition and conflict, transforming positive relationships into negative ones. Friends become enemies, and one is forced to endure the company of those they dislike. This is the suffering of enmity. Despite the universal aversion to such situations, the multitude of human desires inevitably leads to numerous instances of enmity, thereby accumulating immense suffering.

viii. Suffering of the burning of the five aggregates

The five aggregates (form, feeling, perception, volition, and consciousness) are the constituents of existence. The suffering of the burning of the five aggregates manifests as a strong attachment to them. The Avatamsaka Sutra states, “The demon of the aggregates gives rise to all grasping.”[23] This demon is the attachment to the five aggregates. Among the five aggregates, form refers to the material body. The burning of form manifests in the form of spontaneous and intense cravings, even in the absence of external stimuli. For example, one may experience fear of cold, heat, wind, or light.

The intensity of the five aggregates arises from the straining and fatigue of the sense organs.[24] The suffering of clinging to the five aggregates, including the suffering of not obtaining and the suffering of separation, is driven by the insatiable desire to fulfill the cravings of the five aggregates. If these cravings are not satisfied, the five aggregates continue to grasp and torment. Not only the form aggregate, but also the feeling aggregate, the perception aggregate, the volition aggregate, and the consciousness aggregate, all function in this manner. Since this is a preliminary exploration, a detailed discussion will be reserved for future study.

Why does greed give rise to the suffering of the burning of the five aggregates? For example, when one is greedy for food, they must eat; not eating is unbearable. Eating brings pleasure and happiness, while not eating causes suffering. Enjoying delicious food brings great joy, whereas consuming unpalatable food leads to suffering. When greed is satisfied, there is a momentary sense of peace, but the burning of the five aggregates intensifies, fueling even stronger cravings. When subsequent desires are not met, the suffering of not obtaining arises. As long as greed persists, this cycle of suffering continues endlessly.

In conclusion ,as the Avatamsaka Sutra states in Chapter 23, “All worldly pleasures are ultimately suffering. The realms of demonic beings are what foolish beings crave, and what the Buddhas condemn. All suffering arises from them.”[25] For instance, sentient beings in the world toil endlessly to satisfy their appetites. They may work tirelessly for several hours to earn a small amount of money, only to consume it in a single hour of indulgence. If one considers that several hours of toil are exchanged for a single hour of pleasure, is the pleasure greater than the suffering? In reality, the pleasure is fleeting, while the suffering it engenders is prolonged. From this, it is not difficult to understand that worldly pleasures are built upon a foundation of suffering.

In summary, a single moment of worldly pleasure can give rise to eight kinds of suffering, and indeed countless others.[26] The attachment to worldly pleasures is a demonic realm, craved by fools and condemned by the Buddhas. Whether it be the desire for food, sleep, sex, or any other desire, all worldly pleasures ultimately lead to suffering. All forms of suffering originate from the grasping of these fleeting pleasures.

III. Conclusion

This paper provides a preliminary exploration into how greed gives rise to the eight sufferings and their corresponding afflictions. It aims to inspire both oneself and others to deeply understand the inseparability of greed and suffering, thereby fostering a genuine fear of greed and restraining the indulgence of desires.

While this paper primarily uses the example of greed for food to illustrate the eight sufferings caused by greed, it does not provide a detailed discussion of greed in all its forms or its corresponding antidotes. A more in-depth examination and research will be conducted in the future. Your understanding and forgiveness are kindly requested.

References

I.Ancient texts (in chronological order of dynasties)

• Hou Han: The Seven Places and Three Visions Sutra, translated by An Shigao (T. 02)
• Wu: The Buddha-Physician Sutra, a joint translation by Zhū Lǜyán and Zhī Yuè (T. 17)
• Later Qin: The Lotus Sutra, translated by Kumārajīva (T. 09)
• Later Qin: The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom, translated by Kumārajīva (T. 25)
• Later Qin: The Long Agama Sutra, a joint translation by Buddhayaśa and Zhú Funiàn (T. 01)
• Northern Liang: The Great Nirvana Sutra, translated by Dharmakṣema (T. 12)
• Sui: The Collection of Buddha’s Acts, translated by Jñānagupta (T. 03)
• Sui: The Sutra in Which the Buddha Explains to Śuddha the Differences in Karma, translated by Fazhi (T. 01)
• Tang: The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, translated by Buddhatrāta (T. 17)
• Tang: Profound Meanings of the Heart Sutra, composed by Kuiji (T. 33)
• Tang: The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, translated by Paramartha (T. 19)
• Tang: The Avatamsaka Sutra, translated by Śīlabhadra (T. 10)
• Tang: The Vinaya of the Mūlasarvāstivādins, translated by Yìjìn (T. 23)
• Tang: The Mahāyāna Scripture on the Six Pāramitās and the Essential Meaning of Reality, translated by Prajñā (T. 08)
• Song: Wǔdēng Huìyuán, compiled by Puji (XZX 80)
• Lost: The Sutra of the Compassionate Bodhisattva, the Radiant Sage of All Knowledge, Who Does Not Eat Meat, Due to His Compassionate Causes (T. 03)
• Lost: The Sutra of the Five Kings, Spoken by the Buddha (T. 14)

Ⅱ. Others

“Silver Hair, Wild Waves “, Tencent Video , URL:https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?origin=https%3A%2F%2Fmp.weixin.qq.com&chid=17&vid=p0144cueldx&autoplay=false&full=true&show1080p=false&isDebugIframe=false，Accessed September 1, 2021.

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[1] Kumarajiva, tr., the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, Vol. 31, “Inner emptiness refers to internal phenomena, and the emptiness of internal phenomena. Internal phenomena refer to the six internal sense bases: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. The emptiness of the eye means there is no self, no self-possessed, and no eye as a dharma; the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are the same. External emptiness refers to external phenomena, and the emptiness of external phenomena. External phenomena refer to the six external sense bases: form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharma.” Tripitaka, Vol. 25, p. 285.

[2] Kumarajiva, tr., the Lotus Sutra, Vol. 3, Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 9, p. 25.

[3] Dharmagupta, tr., the Buddha-Nature Sutra, Vol. 34, Tripitaka, Vol. 3, p. 811.

[4] Kuiji, tr., Youzan on the Heart Sutra，Vol. 2,: “Both in the womb and at birth, one is subjected to afflictions, hence the fundamental suffering of birth.The suffering of old age is due to the decay of time and the body; the suffering of sickness is due to the decay of the great elements; and the suffering of death is due to the cessation of life. The suffering of experiencing the unpleasant is due to encountering what one dislikes; the suffering of separation from the loved is due to being separated from what one loves; and the suffering of not obtaining what one desires is due to the failure to attain what one hopes for. The suffering of the five aggregates encompasses all sufferings arising from conditioned existence.”Tripitaka, Vol. 33, p. 536.

[5] Buddhadatta, tr., the Great Perfect Enlightenment Sutra, “Good man! All sentient beings, since beginningless time, due to various attachments and desires, have been reincarnating. Whether it be oviparous, viviparous, ovoviviparous, or spontaneously generated beings in all worlds, they are all born into existence due to sexual desire. Know that the love that causes rebirth is the root, and due to various desires, this love is further stimulated, thus causing the continuity of birth and death.” Tripitaka, Vol.17, p. 916.

[6] Paramartha, tr., the Surangama Sutra, Vol. 2,”Your body and mind are both manifestations of the wonderful, luminous, and subtle mind. How is it that you have lost the precious, wonderful, luminous nature of your original, perfect, and luminous mind? In the midst of recognition and understanding, you mistake obscurity for emptiness, and in the darkness of emptiness, you form darkness into form. Form, mixed with false thoughts and appearances, becomes the body. Gathering together conditions, you shake internally and rush externally, and you mistakenly take this confused and agitated state for your mind-nature.” Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 110.

[7] Paramartha’, tr., the Surangama Sutra, Vol. 3, “You do not originally know that in the Tathagata-garbha, the nature of form is emptiness, and the nature of emptiness is form, pure, original, and pervading all dharmas; according to the sentient beings’ minds and their objects of cognition, it manifests in accordance with their karma.” Tripitaka, Vol. 19, p. 117.

[8] Shikshananda, tr., the Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 74, “Good man! In this world, Maya was the mother of Vairocana Tathagata; in that world, Jiguang was the mother of the first Buddha. It was the same. Good man! When Jiguang was about to give birth to the Bodhisattva, she went with twenty billion nayutas of celestial maidens to the Golden Flower Garden; in the garden there was a tower called the Wonderful Treasure Peak; beside it was a tree called the Giver of All. Jiguang climbed the branch of the tree and gave birth to the Bodhisattva, and all the heavenly kings held perfumes to bathe him.” Tripitaka, Vol. 10. p. 404.

[9] PuJi , tr., The Wu Deng Hui Yuan , Vol. 1, ” The Fifth Patriarch, Master Hongren, was a native of Huangmei, Qi Prefecture. Previously, he was a pine-planting hermit in Poto Mountain. He once asked the Fourth Patriarch, ‘May I hear the Dharma?’ The Patriarch replied, ‘You are already old. Even if you were to hear it, how could you widely propagate it? If you were to come again, I could delay for you.’ Thereupon, he departed. While walking by a river, he saw a woman washing clothes. He bowed and asked, ‘May I stay overnight?’ The woman replied, ‘I have parents and brothers; you may go and ask them.’ He said, ‘If you agree, I will do so.’ The woman nodded, and he turned and left. She was the youngest daughter of the Zhou family. Upon returning home, she became pregnant. Her parents greatly resented this and drove her out. Having nowhere to go, she worked as a weaver in the village and stayed in a public inn at night. In time, she gave birth to a son. Considering him an ill omen, they discarded him in a muddy harbor. The next day, he was seen swimming upstream, his body radiant. Greatly astonished, they picked him up. When he grew up, he followed his mother to beg for food. The villagers called him the ‘son without a surname.’ Upon meeting a wise man, the latter sighed, ‘This child lacks seven auspicious signs and is not equal to a Tathagata.’ Later, he encountered Master Xin and received the Dharma transmission.”XinXuZang, Vol. 80. p. 45.

[10]Paramartha , tr., the Shurangama Sutra, Vol. 6, “All dharmas are conditioned by causes and conditions, just as a person who eats the grains of the earth does not leave the earth with their feet.” Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p. 132.

[11] Paramartha , tr., the Shurangama Sutra, Vol. 4, Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p. 120.

[12] Dharmajnana, tr., the Sūtra on the Differences of Karmic Retributions,Tripitaka, vol. 1, p. 892.

[13] An Shigao, tr., the Sutra on the Three Contemplations at Seven Places, Tripitaka, vol. 2, p. 878.

[14] Lost, tr., the Sutra on the Compassionate Reason of the All-Knowing Radiant Sage for Not Eating Meat, Tripitaka,vol. 3, p. 458.

[15] Zhū Lǜyán and Zhī Yuè, tr., the Sutra on the Buddha’s Medicine,Tripitaka, vol. 17, p. 738.

[16] Dharmakṣema, tr., the Great Nirvana Sutra, Tripitaka, vol. 12, p. 518.

[17] YiJing, tr., the Vinaya of the Sarvastivada, Tripitaka, vol. 23, p. 635.

[18] Buddhayaśa, Zhú Funiàn, tr., the Long Agama Sutra, Tripitaka, vol. 1, p. 37.

[19] “Silver Hair, Wild Waves “, Tencent Video , URL:

https://v.qq.com/txp/iframe/player.html?origin=https%3A%2F%2Fmp.weixin.qq.com&chid=17&vid=p0144cueldx&autoplay=false&full=true&show1080p=false&isDebugIframe=false，Accessed September 1, 2021.

[20] Paramartha, tr., The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Vol. 4, “Your body, presently compounded of the four great elements, is obstructed and hindered by the senses of sight, hearing, feeling, and thinking. The elements of water, fire, wind, and earth, revolving and interweaving, give rise to false perceptions. This is the second obscuration, known as the obscuration of vision. ” Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p.122.

[21] Paramartha, tr.,The Surangama Sutra, Vol 8,”How does one receive the sixfold retribution? Ananda, all sentient beings generate karma through their six consciousnesses, and the resulting evil retribution manifests through the six sense organs. How does evil retribution manifest through the six sense organs? First, the retribution of sight: At the moment of death, one will first see raging fires filling the ten directions. The dying consciousness will soar through the smoke and fall into Avīci Hell, revealing two aspects: ‘First, clear sight allows one to see various evil beings, causing immense fear. Second, dark sight, unable to see anything, breeds immense terror. Thus, when the fire burns the eyes, it becomes boiling cauldrons and molten copper; when it burns the ears, it becomes black smoke and purple flames; when it burns the nose, it becomes charred pellets and iron paste; when it burns the body, it becomes hot ashes and burning coals; when it burns the mind, it generates sparks that scatter and ignite the empty space.’ Second, the retribution of hearing…” Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p. 144.

[22] Prajñā, tr., The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra, Vol. 3, “All suffering arises from greed.” Taisho Tripitaka, Vol. 8. p. 877.

[23] Śīlabhadra, tr., The Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 58, Tripitaka, Vol. 10. p. 307.

[24] Paramartha, tr., The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Vol. 3, “That is to say, when the eye strains and becomes fatigued, both the eye and the fatigue are of the nature of enlightenment, and the appearance of fatigue arises.”Tripitaka, Vol. 19. p.114.

[25] Śīlabhadra, tr., The Avatamsaka Sutra, Vol. 23, Tripitaka, Vol. 10. p. 125-126.

[26] Lost, tr.,the Sutra of the Five Kings, “Listen well, I shall explain to you. Human beings, while living in the world, constantly experience countless sufferings. I will now briefly explain the eight sufferings to you. What are the eight sufferings? Birth, old age, sickness, death, separation from loved ones, failure to obtain desired things, being with the hated, and sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. These are the eight sufferings. …” Tripitaka, Vol. 14. p.796-797.