Buddhist Practice Association Paper Writing
(Issue 22)
On Samādhi
Instructor: Bennie Spirit
Shi Wuguang
Author: Wang Huaigu
June 30, 2025
Abstract
The Buddhist study of “Samādhi” (定) is one of the Three Learnings and a crucial method in Buddhist practice. This paper delves into the core concept of “Samādhi” in Buddhism. Through research on relevant sutras and treatises, it expounds on the meaning, classification, practice methods, and important role of Samādhi within the Buddhist practice system. The aim is to reveal the key significance of Samādhi for eradicating afflictions, attaining liberation, and achieving enlightenment, helping practitioners better understand and practice Samādhi.
Keywords: Three Learnings, Buddhism, Samādhi, Practice, Liberation
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
… 4
II. Meaning of Samādhi
… 7
III. Classification of Samādhi
… 10
IV. Methods of Practicing Samādhi
… 19
V. Function of Samādhi
… 27
VI. Conclusion
… 32
I. Introduction
Buddhism, as a profound religion and philosophical system, encompasses numerous aspects in its practice methods and doctrines, and Samādhi (定) holds a pivotal position within it.
Samādhi is the wondrous method for detaching and unbinding. It not only manifests as a special mental state but is also one of the main outlines of Buddhist practical methods, forming the Three Learnings along with Precepts and Wisdom. In the Eightfold Noble Path, Right Samādhi is one of them. In the Five Roots and Five Powers, Samādhi also exists in the forms of the Root of Samādhi and the Power of Samādhi, respectively. In the Six Pāramitās (Six Perfections), Dhyāna (禪定) is also an important component.
Samādhi, in Sanskrit, is called Samādhi (三昧), also transliterated as Sanmodi, Sanmoboputi, etc., meaning a mental state where the mind is concentrated on a single object without distraction. In the course of Buddhist practice, Samādhi is regarded as the indispensable path to wisdom and liberation. For instance, “Buddha’s unobstructed pure wisdom all arises from Dhyāna-samādhi, reaching the other shore with great wisdom” is stated in Dharmapāla-śāstra . Also, as stated in Saṃyukta Āgama, “If a bhikkhu, free from initial and sustained application, with internal purity and single-mindedness, fixates on Dhyāna, and enters and abides in the first Dhyāna, replete with joy born of seclusion, this is called the first Dhyāna”. It is evident that the practice of Samādhi permeates all stages of Buddhist practice and plays an indispensable role in helping practitioners achieve mental transformation and the realization of truth.
II. Meaning of Samādhi
In Buddhist sutras and treatises, the explanations of Samādhi are rich and profound. Literally, Samādhi refers to the mind’s concentration and stability.
Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra mentions: “What is Samādhi? It means the mind’s single-pointedness through careful and correct observation of the object”. This indicates that Samādhi is not merely the mind’s singleness, but also a deep, concentrated observation of the object, enabling the mind to stably abide on a single object. Single-pointedness of mind means that the mind is not shaken by external disturbances and internal杂念 (distractions), thereby achieving a state of high concentration and tranquility.
Samādhi also contains deeper spiritual connotations. It is a state of mind that transcends worldly disturbances, enabling practitioners to free themselves from the shackles of afflictions such as greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance, and doubt. In the state of Samādhi, the practitioner’s inner mind is like a calm lake, capable of clearly reflecting the true nature of things, thereby gaining insight into the true nature of all phenomena. This insight is not based on worldly cognition, but rather on wisdom induced by Samādhi, transcending concepts and discriminations, directly experiencing the essence of things. Samādhi is an important tool for practitioners to achieve spiritual sublimation and enlightenment. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can gradually purify their minds, develop inner potential, and ultimately achieve the goal of liberation.
III. Classification of Samādhi
3.1 Worldly Samādhi
3.1.1 Four Dhyānas
The Four Dhyānas, namely the first Dhyāna, second Dhyāna, third Dhyāna, and fourth Dhyāna, are important worldly Samādhis in Buddhism. The first Dhyāna, also known as the “Stage of Joy and Pleasure Born of Seclusion: because it is free from all defilements of desire and all afflictions,” is where practitioners enter a state free from coarse afflictions by being detached from desire and unwholesome states, thereby generating feelings of joy and pleasure. At this time, the mind is concentrated on a single object, and initial and sustained application (seeking and pondering) have not yet completely ceased. As stated in
Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya-kārikā-vṛtti (《俱舍論頌疏》): “In the first Dhyāna, being associated with seeking and pondering, it is called abiding in the first Dhyāna”. The joy and pleasure of the first Dhyāna arise from the liberation of body and mind from the coarseness of the desire realm, allowing practitioners to experience a relatively serene and pleasant state of mind.
The second Dhyāna is called the “Stage of Joy and Pleasure Born of Samādhi: because seeking and pondering have been abandoned and defiling obstacles overcome”. Building on the first Dhyāna, practitioners further cease seeking and pondering, making the inner mind even more tranquil. At this time, the power of Samādhi is even stronger, giving rise to deeper joy and pleasure born of Samādhi. This joy and pleasure are purer and more lasting than the joy and pleasure born of seclusion in the first Dhyāna, as they no longer depend on being free from the afflictions of the desire realm, but arise directly from Samādhi. The state of the second Dhyāna allows practitioners to feel the intermingling of inner peace and joy, as if immersed in a serene and beautiful state.
The third Dhyāna is called the “Stage of Wonderful Pleasure Apart from Joy: due to abiding in expedient acts that bring benefit and pleasure”. In this stage, practitioners abandon the joy of the second Dhyāna and enter a more subtle state of pleasure. Joy is a relatively coarse emotion, while pleasure is deeper and more internal. The pleasure of the third Dhyāna is the result of a high degree of tranquility and harmony of body and mind. It transcends the fluctuations of joy, enabling practitioners to experience an extreme tranquility and delight. In the third Dhyāna, the practitioner’s breathing becomes extremely subtle, and the body and mind are as if in an ethereal state, filled with unspeakable wonderful feelings.
The fourth Dhyāna is called the “Stage of Purity of Equanimity and Mindfulness: because suffering and pleasure have been abandoned, good and evil thoughts subdued, neither suffering nor pleasure, and mindfulness has been abandoned; practiced expediently, perfectly pure”. Building on the third Dhyāna, practitioners further abandon pleasure and attain a state of “equanimity” that is neither suffering nor pleasure. At this time, mindfulness also becomes extremely pure, and the mind is as pure and undefiled as empty space, far removed from all relative sensations and distractions. The state of the fourth Dhyāna is the most profound of worldly Samādhis, representing an ultimate tranquility and equality. Practitioners in this state can transcend all distinctions of suffering and pleasure, achieving a pure mental stillness.
3.1.2 Four Formless Dhyānas
The Four Formless Dhyānas include the Dhyāna of Boundless Space, the Dhyāna of Boundless Consciousness, the Dhyāna of Nothingness, and the Dhyāna of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception. In the Dhyāna of Boundless Space, practitioners transcend attachment to the material world by contemplating that all material phenomena are empty and non-existent, thus focusing the mind on infinite space. In this Dhyāna state, practitioners feel themselves merging with space, freed from the constraints of the material world, entering a vast and boundless spiritual realm.
In the Dhyāna of Boundless Consciousness, practitioners shift their contemplation from boundless space to boundless consciousness, realizing the infinitude of consciousness. At this time, the mind is concentrated on the boundlessness of consciousness, transcending attachment to space, entering a Dhyāna state with consciousness as the object. In the Dhyāna of Boundless Consciousness, practitioners experience the vastness and endlessness of consciousness, feeling the profundity and mystery of the spiritual world.
In the Dhyāna of Nothingness, practitioners further contemplate that consciousness is also empty and that nothing exists. At this time, the mind is concentrated on the state of “nothingness,” transcending attachment to consciousness, entering a more tranquil and empty Dhyāna state. In the Dhyāna of Nothingness, practitioners experience a complete sense of emptiness, as if everything has vanished, leaving only a pure stillness.
The Dhyāna of Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception is the most profound of the Four Formless Dhyānas. In this state, practitioners are neither completely without thought (non-non-perception) nor do they have obvious, coarse thoughts (non-perception), being in an extremely subtle mental state. This state transcends all relative concepts and discriminations, being a state of stillness almost like Nirvāṇa, yet not fully liberated, as there still exist extremely subtle ignorance and attachment within it.
3.2 Transcendent Samādhi
3.2.1 Three Samādhis
The Three Samādhis, namely Samādhi of Emptiness, Samādhi of Signlessness, and Samādhi of Wishlessness, are important transcendent Samādhis for practitioners to attain liberation. In the Samādhi of Emptiness, practitioners break through attachment to things and false views by contemplating that all phenomena are empty, without self-nature or substantial existence.
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa (《大智度論》) states: “Contemplating the emptiness of the five aggregates (skandhas) is called the Samādhi of Emptiness”. And Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Chapter 5, says: “Abiding in this Samādhi, one knows the true nature of all phenomena, which is ultimate emptiness; this is called the Samādhi of Emptiness. Bringing the mind to rest through the practice of emptiness and non-self is called the Samādhi of Emptiness”. In the practice of the Samādhi of Emptiness, practitioners deeply observe the nature of the five aggregates and all phenomena, realizing that they arise from causes and conditions and have no independent, unchanging self-nature, thereby transcending the concept of a real self and real things, and attaining an experience of emptiness.
The Samādhi of Signlessness, building on the Samādhi of Emptiness, further contemplates that all phenomena are signless, meaning things have no fixed, real characteristics.
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Chapter 5, states: “What is the Samādhi of Signlessness? All phenomena have no characteristics, and all phenomena are not taken up or clung to; this is called the Samādhi of Signlessness”. All characteristics are illusory, false appearances arising from the combination of causes and conditions. Through practicing the Samādhi of Signlessness, practitioners are no longer confused by the external characteristics of things, transcending attachment to characteristics, thereby achieving inner purity and freedom. The Samādhi of Signlessness can help practitioners break free from discrimination and craving for various worldly phenomena, realizing that the essence of things is signless and has no real characteristics, thereby achieving the realization of reality.
The Samādhi of Wishlessness, also known as the Samādhi of Non-production.
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Chapter 5: “What is non-production? It is not contemplating phenomena as empty or not empty, existent or non-existent, etc. As the Buddha said in a verse in the Dharmapada: ‘Seeing existence, one fears; seeing non-existence, one also fears. Therefore, one does not cling to existence, nor does one cling to non-existence. This is called the Samādhi of Non-production.'” Practitioners contemplate that all phenomena are impermanent and suffering, thereby no longer generating desires or wishes for anything in the world. Because everything in the world is impermanent and changing, full of suffering and afflictions, pursuing these impermanent things will only bring more suffering. By practicing the Samādhi of Wishlessness, practitioners let go of attachment and pursuit of worldly things, no longer being driven by desires, thereby being able to focus on the path to liberation and move towards the state of Nirvāṇa.
3.2.2 Śūraṅgama Samādhi
The Śūraṅgama Samādhi is an extremely extraordinary transcendent Samādhi, possessing inconceivable power and merit.
Śūraṅgama Sūtra (《大佛頂首楞嚴經》), Chapter 4, states: “If one abandons birth and death, and upholds the true eternality, and the eternal light manifests, then the defiling roots and consciousness-mind will instantly vanish. Imaginary characteristics are defilement, and discriminative feelings are impurities; when both are far removed, then your Dharma Eye will instantly become clear. How can you not achieve supreme enlightenment?” The Śūraṅgama Samādhi allows practitioners to be far removed from the two types of defilements: imagination and discriminative feelings, making the Dharma Eye clear, and achieving supreme enlightenment.
Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra (《首楞嚴三昧經》) describes the Śūraṅgama Samādhi as: “The Śūraṅgama Samādhi is not something that bodhisattvas of the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, or ninth grounds can attain; only bodhisattvas residing on the tenth ground can attain this Śūraṅgama Samādhi”. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi transcends ordinary Dhyāna states. It encompasses the perfect combination of wisdom and compassion, enabling practitioners to manifest various supernatural powers and transform sentient beings while in Samādhi.
In the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, practitioners can deeply realize the true nature of all phenomena and gain ultimate insight into the universe and human life. At the same time, guided by compassion, they can skillfully and expediently use the power and wisdom of Samādhi to save sentient beings. Practitioners of Śūraṅgama Samādhi possess powerful mental and Samādhi power, enabling them to maintain inner peace and firmness when facing various worldly afflictions and sufferings, while also actively engaging in the work of transforming sentient beings, demonstrating the Buddhist spirit of compassion and salvation. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi is not only a profound Dhyāna state but also an embodiment of the Bodhisattva path. It perfectly integrates Samādhi with wisdom, self-benefit with benefiting others, and is an important path for practitioners to pursue perfect enlightenment.
IV. Methods of Practicing Samādhi
4.1 Provisions for Practicing Samādhi
4.1.1 Upholding Precepts
Upholding precepts is the foundation for practicing Samādhi, as stated in Sūtra of the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching (《佛遺教經》): “If one can uphold pure precepts, then one can have good dharmas; if one has no pure precepts, all good merits cannot arise”. Upholding precepts helps practitioners restrain body and mind, prevent the creation of unwholesome karma, thereby creating favorable conditions for the practice of Samādhi.
Also, as stated in Śūraṅgama Sūtra (《大佛顶首楞严经》), Chapter 6: “That is, gathering the mind is precepts, from precepts arises Samādhi, from Samādhi arises wisdom. These are called the Three Unconditioned Learnings”. Why is it said that Samādhi arises from precepts? Because precepts first eliminate one’s many faults one by one. After they are eliminated, one no longer thinks about those things. At this time, in Samādhi, one naturally will still not think about those things. Thus, it can be seen that precepts are the foundation for the arising of Samādhi.
Precepts are like a strong dam that can block the flood of desires and afflictions, allowing the practitioner’s inner mind to gradually calm down. By upholding precepts, practitioners can cultivate self-discipline and self-restraint, reduce external interference and internal disturbances, and lay the foundation for the mind’s concentration and stability.
4.1.2 Having Few Desires and Being Content
Having few desires and being content is an important mindset for practicing Samādhi. In The Buddha’s Last Instructions (《佛垂般涅槃略說教誡經》), the Buddha taught practitioners: “Those with few desires have a tranquil mind, without worries or fears, always having more than enough in everything, and never feeling insufficient”. Having few desires means not being driven by excessive desires and not excessively pursuing material and sensory enjoyments. Being content means being satisfied with the wealth and possessions one has, without generating greedy thoughts. This mindset enables practitioners to break free from the shackles of desires, making the inner mind more peaceful and free. In a state of having few desires and being content, practitioners can focus more energy and attention on the practice of Samādhi, without being distracted by external temptations and internal greed.
4.1.3 Staying Away from Bustle
Staying away from bustling environments is crucial for practicing Samādhi. Bustling environments can easily make one’s mind agitated and scattered, making it difficult to concentrate on a single object.
Saṃyukta Āgama (《雜阿含經》) mentions: “Bhikkhus, you should constantly cultivate solitary and quiet places, abide in seclusion, and diligently practice Dhyāna. You should be free from laziness and low-grade diligence. The noble ones are not lazy and abide in seclusion. Diligently practice Dhyāna and transcend the flow of birth and death”. Practitioners should choose quiet, serene places for practice, such as mountains, forests, monasteries, or temples. In such environments, practitioners can stay away from worldly noise and disturbances, allowing their body and mind to relax and find peace. Staying away from bustle can reduce external interference, making it easier for practitioners to enter a state of Samādhi and focus on inner practice and the realization of the Dharma.
4.2 Specific Methods of Practicing Samādhi
4.2.1 Counting Breaths
Counting breaths is a method of practicing Samādhi by observing the breath to achieve single-mindedness.
Sutra on Samādhi in Sitting Meditation (《坐禪三昧經》) says: “If one is a beginner, one should be taught to wholeheartedly count the incoming and outgoing breaths, whether long or short, counting from one to ten”. Practitioners should sit comfortably in a quiet place, adjust their posture, and keep their body and mind relaxed. Then, they should focus their attention on the breath, counting from one to ten, with one inhalation and one exhalation counting as one. When counting breaths, one should clearly perceive the inhalation and exhalation. If distractions arise during the counting, one should restart counting from one. Through continuous practice of counting breaths, practitioners can gradually eliminate distractions and focus their mind on the breath as the object of concentration, thereby reaching an initial state of Samādhi. Counting breaths is simple and easy to practice, suitable for beginners, and can help practitioners train their attention, cultivate mental concentration, and stability.
4.2.2 Impurity Contemplation
Impurity contemplation is a method of practicing Samādhi to counteract craving by contemplating the impurity of the body. Practitioners can contemplate various impure aspects of the body, such as bodily excretions, decaying corpses, etc..
Saṃyukta Āgama (《雜阿含經》) describes impurity contemplation in detail: “This body, from foot to head, bone structure covered with flesh, covered with thin skin, filled with various impurities; observe it thoroughly: hair, nails, teeth, dirt, saliva, skin, flesh, white bones, sinews, veins, heart, liver, lungs, spleen, kidneys, large intestines, small intestines, bladder, tears, sweat, mucus, foam, fat, grease, marrow, phlegm, pus, blood, brain, juice, feces, urine”. By contemplating these impure aspects, practitioners can realize that the essence of the body is impure, thereby reducing craving and attachment to the body. Impurity contemplation can help practitioners overcome attachment to the body, purify inner desires, and make the mind clearer and more focused, laying the foundation for deeper Samādhi.
4.2.3 Buddha Contemplation
Buddha contemplation is a method of achieving Samādhi by contemplating the image of the Buddha, his merits, or reciting the Buddha’s name. Practitioners can choose a familiar Buddha image and carefully observe the solemn and auspicious marks of the Buddha, such as the Buddha’s golden body, perfect auspicious marks, and compassionate face. During contemplation, one should wholeheartedly feel the Buddha’s compassion and wisdom, and merge one’s mind with the Buddha’s image. Alternatively, one can achieve Samādhi by reciting the Buddha’s name, such as “Namo Amitābha Buddha,” concentrating wholeheartedly on the Buddha’s name, reciting continuously without interruption.
Sutra of Contemplation on Amitābha Buddha (《佛説觀無量壽經》) describes the methods and merits of Buddha contemplation in detail: “At that time, the World-Honored One told Vaidehī: ‘Do you know now? Amitābha Buddha is not far from here. You should fix your mind and contemplate those who have achieved pure karma in that land. I will now broadly explain various metaphors for you, and also enable all ordinary beings in future generations who wish to cultivate pure karma to be reborn in the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss'”. Buddha contemplation can, with the help of the Buddha’s compassion and vows, purify and empower the practitioner’s mind, gradually leading to the Samādhi state of single-mindedness.
4.2.4 Samatha-Vipaśyanā Practice
There are various methods for practicing Samādhi, among which the practice and coordination of
śamatha (止, cessation) and vipaśyanā (觀, insight) are important.
Śamatha means the settling, stability, and stillness of the mind, enabling the mind to focus on a single object without being disturbed by external influences.
Vipaśyanā, on the other hand, is the process of thought and observation based on śamatha, according to the requirements of practice. If one only practices
śamatha without vipaśyanā, the mind can easily become dull and fall into a state of drowsiness; at this time, although the practitioner’s mind is quiet, it lacks insight and contemplation of things. Conversely, if one only practices
vipaśyanā without śamatha, the mind will tend to discriminate, generating scattered thoughts and being unable to concentrate on a single object. Therefore, Buddhism emphasizes “the balance of
śamatha and vipaśyanā”. Only by coordinating
śamatha and vipaśyanā can the active function of Dhyāna arise, leading practitioners into the realm of Samādhi. For example, in Tiantai school practice, through methods such as counting breaths, the mind is first focused on the breath to achieve the state of
śamatha. Then, in Samādhi, one further observes the arising and cessation, impermanence, and other characteristics of the breath; this is the process of
vipaśyanā. Through such a dual practice of śamatha and vipaśyanā, practitioners can gradually deepen their Samādhi and elevate their practice realm.
V. Function of Samādhi
5.1 Eradicating Afflictions
Samādhi plays a crucial role in eradicating afflictions. In the state of Samādhi, the practitioner’s mind becomes extremely concentrated and sharp, able to clearly perceive the arising and operation mechanism of inner afflictions. By deeply observing the nature of afflictions, practitioners can realize that afflictions are false discriminations triggered by ignorance, greed, hatred, and delusion. As
Saṃyukta Āgama (《雜阿含經》) says: “If a bhikkhu’s mind is in Samādhi, they can truly know this noble truth of suffering, truly know this noble truth of the origin of suffering, truly know this noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and truly know this noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering”. In Samādhi, practitioners can use wisdom to counteract afflictions, no longer being driven by them, thereby gradually eradicating the roots of afflictions.
Samādhi can enable practitioners to break free from the shackles of greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance, and doubt. Greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance, and doubt are the roots of all afflictions and unwholesome karma. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can strengthen their inner Samādhi power, not be swayed by external temptations, thereby reducing the arising of greedy thoughts. At the same time, in Samādhi, practitioners can treat others with a calm and compassionate mind, dissolving feelings of hatred. Through insight into the true nature of all phenomena, practitioners can break ignorance and eliminate delusion. Samādhi is like a sharp sword that can cut through the bonds of afflictions, enabling practitioners to attain inner liberation and freedom.
5.2 Developing Wisdom
Samādhi is the foundation for developing wisdom. Buddhism believes that wisdom is not knowledge acquired from external sources, but rather a realization of the essence of things arising from inner experience and insight. In the state of Samādhi, the practitioner’s mind is like a calm lake, capable of clearly reflecting the true appearance of things. Through deep observation and contemplation of the object of focus, practitioners can gradually comprehend the truths of emptiness, impermanence, and non-self of all phenomena, thereby developing Prajñā wisdom.
As Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa (《大智度論》) says: “For example, a lamp, though it can illuminate, is useless in a strong wind; but if placed in a secret room, its function is complete. Wisdom in a scattered mind is also like this; if there is no Dhyāna-samādhi, that wisdom is useless”. Samādhi can make the practitioner’s thoughts clearer and deeper, eliminating distractions and interferences, thereby better comprehending the profound meaning of the Dharma. In Samādhi, practitioners can transcend the limitations of worldly cognition, view the world and life from a new perspective, and gain profound insight into the ultimate truth of the universe and human existence. This wisdom, induced by Samādhi, can help practitioners break free from confusion and achieve spiritual awakening and liberation.
5.3 Approaching Liberation
Samādhi is the indispensable path for practitioners to approach liberation. Liberation is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, meaning freedom from the shackles of cyclic existence and the attainment of eternal stillness and freedom. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can gradually purify their minds, eradicate afflictions, and develop wisdom, thereby step by step approaching the realm of liberation.
In the practice of transcendent Samādhis, such as the Three Samādhis and the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, practitioners can directly realize the true nature of all phenomena, transcend the illusions of cyclic existence, and achieve Nirvāṇa liberation. Samādhi can enable practitioners to maintain inner peace and firmness when facing various worldly sufferings and impermanence, without being swayed by external changes. Through the practice of Samādhi, practitioners can cultivate a spiritual realm that transcends the mundane, ultimately achieving the crossing from this shore of birth and death to the other shore of Nirvāṇa, attaining ultimate liberation and freedom.
VI. Conclusion
Samādhi occupies a central position in the Buddhist practice system. It encompasses rich connotations and diverse classifications, and through specific practice methods, it can have a profound impact on practitioners. Samādhi can not only help practitioners eradicate afflictions and purify the mind, but also develop wisdom, achieve insight into the true nature of all phenomena, and ultimately approach the realm of liberation. Both worldly Samādhi and transcendent Samādhi provide practitioners with different levels of practice paths and spiritual.
References
Ancient Texts (ordered by dynasty and time):
[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 15.
[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Sūtra of the Buddha’s Bequeathed Teaching, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 12.
[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Mahāprajñāpāramitā Upadeśa, Vol. 5, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 25.
[Yao Qin] Translated by Kumārajīva: Sutra on Samādhi in Sitting Meditation, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 15.
[Liu Song] Translated by Guṇabhadra: Saṃyukta Āgama, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 52.
[Tang] Translated by Xuanzang: Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, Vol. 11, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 17, p. 655c.
[Tang] Translated by Paramiti: Śūraṅgama Sūtra, Vol. 4, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 19.
[Tang] Composed by Yuanhui: Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya-kārikā-vṛtti, Vol. 28, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 41.
[Song] Translated by Jin Zongchi and others: Sutra on the Buddha’s Teaching on the Determination of the Dharma Vehicle, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 17.
[Song] Translated by Kālayaśas: Sutra of Contemplation on Amitābha Buddha, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 12.
[Song] Composed by Zhang Shangying: Dharmapāla-śāstra, Vol. 1, Taishō Tripiṭaka, Vol. 52.