Buddhas’ Practice Incorporated Thesis Writing
(Issue 24)
On Greed
Mentor: Bennie Spirit
Author: Wang Huaigu
Table of contents
Chapter Two: The Nature and Manifestations of Greed
Chapter Three: The Harms and Suffering Caused by Greed
Chapter Four: Practical Paths to Subduing Greed
Abstract:
Greed, as the foremost of the “Three Poisons” in Buddhism, is the root of sentient beings’ afflictions and suffering. Its forms are complex and its influence far-reaching, permeating all actions of body, speech, and mind, triggering a chain reaction of birth, death, and endless suffering. This paper, based on Buddhist scriptures, systematically explains the definition, essence, and manifestations of greed, deeply analyzing its multiple harms to individual life, spiritual practice, and the cycle of rebirth. Furthermore, it constructs a practical path to subdue greed from the dimensions of establishing right view, cultivating faith, practicing morality, concentration, and wisdom, and contemplative practice. This study aims to provide theoretical guidance and practical reference for individuals to break free from the shackles of greed, achieve spiritual purification, and attain spiritual sublimation through a modern interpretation of Buddhist wisdom, highlighting the realistic response of traditional religious thought to the spiritual dilemmas of contemporary people.
Keywords: Greed, Three Poisons, Path to Subjugation, Spiritual Purification
Chapter 1 Introduction
In the worldly dimension of sentient beings’ existence, greed, like an invisible net, entangles individual cognition and behavior, giving rise to endless afflictions and suffering. Buddhism refers to greed, anger, and ignorance as the “Three Poisons,” with greed considered the root of all afflictions. The *Threefold Contemplation* states, “All suffering arises from greed; but from where does greed arise?” This statement reveals the essential connection between greed and suffering. In reality, whether it’s attachment to wealth, sex, fame, food, and sleep, or craving for sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touch, greed constantly drives sentient beings into a cycle of pursuit and loss. At best, it leads to inner anxiety and imbalanced interpersonal relationships; at worst, it triggers social conflict and the decline of life.
Buddhist scriptures contain profound insights into greed and wisdom for liberation. From the “burning house of the three realms” parable in the *Lotus Sutra*, to the analysis of the nature of greed in the *Śūraṅgama Sūtra*, and the methods for eliminating greed proposed in the *Mahāvaipulya-sūtra*, a complete theoretical system and practical path have been formed. In contemporary society, where material desires are increasingly rampant, re-examining Buddhist thought on greed can not only help individuals overcome spiritual difficulties but also provide spiritual resources for building a harmonious society. This article, based on Buddhist scriptures, systematically examines the nature and harms of greed and explores practical methods for subduing it, hoping to provide useful guidance for contemporary people to achieve spiritual freedom and a fulfilling life.
Chapter Two: The Nature and Manifestations of Greed
(I) Classical Definition of Greed
Buddhist scriptures provide a clear definition of greed, its core being attachment to and insatiable pursuit of external objects. The *Mahayana Sutra*, Volume 5, explicitly states: “Attachment to the five external desires is called greed.” Here, the “five desires” refer to form, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Sentient beings, using their five senses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and body), cling to external objects, generating a mind of attachment and lingering attachment—this is the basic form of greed. The *Abhidharmakośa*, Volume 16, further expands the scope of greed, defining it as “desire for the possessions of others,” considering the insatiable pursuit of all desirable things, such as wealth and fame, to fall under the category of greed.
The sixth volume of the *Cheng Weishi Lun* (Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only) explains greed from the perspective of obstacles to spiritual practice: “What is greed? Its nature is attachment to existence and its possessions. Its function is to obstruct non-attachment and cause suffering.” This definition reveals the dual harm of greed: on the one hand, it obscures the roots of goodness in non-attachment; on the other hand, it leads to the suffering of the cycle of birth and death. The *Buddha’s Discourse on the Precious Rain Sutra* further highlights the extreme form of greed in its description of “superior greed”—”Greed pervades body and mind, follows the inferior, the mind is constantly attached, and there is no shame or remorse at any time.” This indicates that those with intense greed will disregard ethical principles, disrespect and harm elders to satisfy their desires, ultimately falling into lower realms.
Based on various scriptures and treatises, the essence of greed is attachment and clinging to illusory external objects. Its core characteristics are insatiability and defilement. It originates from sentient beings’ delusion of their true nature and is described as “the arising of mental labor in the Bodhi mind,” meaning that sentient beings, based on their pure nature, falsely discriminate, clinging to illusory realms as real, thus generating greed.
(II) Classification and Manifestations of Greed Buddhist scriptures classify greed in detail according to its objects and forms. The *Abhidharmakośa* categorizes craving into four types based on the object of attachment: craving for form, craving for shape, craving for tactile sensation, and craving for offerings. These correspond to attachment to color, shape, touch, and offerings from others, respectively. The *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra*, on the other hand, classifies it into ten types from a psychological and behavioral perspective: craving for things, craving for views, craving for desire itself, and craving for stinginess, encompassing multiple forms including attachment to concrete things, erroneous views, craving itself, and stinginess regarding material possessions.
In reality, greed permeates the daily lives of ordinary people, manifesting in a complex array of forms: First, greed for material wealth, expressed as an insatiable pursuit of money, property, and resources, resorting to any means to accumulate wealth; second, greed for sensory pleasures, namely, indulging in the stimulation of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch, such as gluttony, alcoholism, and lust; third, greed for fame and fortune, clinging to… Fourth, there is greed for emotions and relationships, manifested as an excessive possessiveness of kinship, love, and friendship, leading to anxiety and suffering due to the fear of separation; fifth, there is greed for spiritual attainments, with some practitioners using the pursuit of supernatural powers and blessings as a means to satisfy their desires, thus falling into the dilemma of “wanting to achieve enlightenment while clinging to afflictions.”
The text also mentions several other issues, including: a desire for praise, social status, and reputation, leading to deception and sycophancy. Although these forms of greed differ, they share a common essence—they are all attachments to “self” and “what belongs to self.” That is, sentient beings mistakenly perceive the illusory self, composed of the five aggregates, as truly existent, and thus become attached to all phenomena related to “self,” forming stubborn habits that are “difficult to eradicate even after hundreds of thousands of eons.”
Chapter Three: The Harms and Suffering Caused by Greed
(I) The Source of Individual Suffering
Greed is the root of all suffering. The Lotus Sutra, Volume Three, metaphorically states: “Seeing all sentient beings being burned by birth, old age, sickness, death, sorrow, grief, and affliction. They also suffer various kinds of suffering because of the five desires and wealth. Furthermore, because of their attachment and pursuit, they now experience various kinds of suffering.” The suffering caused by greed is primarily manifested in the intertwined entanglements of the “Eight Sufferings”: the suffering of not obtaining what one desires; the suffering of separation from loved ones because of the loss or separation of what one desires; the suffering of being in the same room with those one dislikes (all stemming from resentment caused by greed); and the suffering of the five aggregates arising from the imbalance of body, speech, and mind caused by greed, leading to the creation of karma.
Greed not only causes immediate suffering, but also breeds many other afflictions such as anger, ignorance, pride, and doubt, forming a vicious cycle of afflictions. When greed is not satisfied, anger arises; one becomes delusional in order to satisfy greed; one becomes arrogant and conceited because of the desire for respect from others; and one becomes suspicious and paranoid because of the worry that greed cannot be fulfilled. These afflictions intertwine, driving sentient beings to commit evil deeds such as killing, stealing, adultery, and lying, ultimately leading to karmic consequences such as “the pain of cutting one’s tongue” and “difficulties in the three karmas”—just as the *Sutra of Forty-Two Chapters* illustrates: “Wealth and beauty are to people what they cannot relinquish. It is like honey on a knife’s edge; it is not enough for a single meal. If a child licks it, he will cut his tongue.” Greed is like honey on a knife’s edge—seemingly tempting, but actually harboring deadly risks.
Furthermore, greed can lead to the decline of an individual’s mind and abilities. The *Buddha’s Deeds* states, “Greed makes one base.” Greed causes sentient beings to fall from a noble and comfortable life into a base state, plagued by the eight sufferings. Their memory, comprehension, judgment, and vitality gradually decline, ultimately leading to a state of “a lamp running out of oil.”
(II) The Fundamental Obstacle to the Path of Practice
For practitioners, greed is the greatest enemy of achieving liberation. The Ten Dedications Chapter of the *Avatamsaka Sutra* clearly states: “Indulging in the five desires distances one from all Buddhas and hinders rebirth in heaven; how much less so from attaining Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi!” Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment. The fundamental reason why greed hinders Buddhahood is that it obscures the inherent Tathagata wisdom of all sentient beings. The *Avatamsaka Sutra* states: “There is not a single sentient being who does not possess Tathagata wisdom, but due to deluded thoughts, inverted perceptions, and attachments, they do not attain it.” The core of “deluded thoughts, inverted perceptions, and attachments” here is greed; it is like a fog, preventing sentient beings from seeing the pure and luminous nature of their own being.
Greed not only hinders the manifestation of wisdom but also destroys the good roots and merits of practitioners. Buddhism believes that the core of spiritual practice is “abstaining from all evil and practicing all good,” but greed can drive practitioners away from the path of virtue—perhaps leading to hypocritical good deeds for the sake of blessings, or vying for Dharma resources out of greed for fame and fortune, or being impatient for quick results out of greed for spiritual attainments, ultimately resulting in “the attainment of Bodhi not being achieved, but the increase of afflictions.” As the *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* states, “As I press my finger, the ocean seal shines; you momentarily raise your mind, and worldly troubles arise first,” the habitual nature of greed makes practitioners easily fall into a vortex of afflictions, making it difficult to remain on the path of pure practice.
(III) The Core Driving Force of the Cycle of Birth and Death
Greed is the fundamental cause of the cycle of rebirth for all sentient beings. The *Mahāvaipulya-sūtra* profoundly points out: “All sentient beings, from beginningless time, have been subject to the cycle of rebirth due to various forms of attachment and greed… Desire arises from attachment, life arises from desire; sentient beings cherish life, and thus rely on desire as their root; attachment and desire are the cause, and cherishing life is the effect.” Because sentient beings are attached to attachment to love, sensual pleasures, and other such states, they create various karmic forces. These karmic forces are like seeds, constantly maturing in the cycle of birth and death, leading sentient beings to endlessly reincarnate in the various realms of existence—egg-born, womb-born, moisture-born, and metamorphic-born.
The suffering of reincarnation caused by greed is not only manifested in the three lower realms—”the sin of greed also causes sentient beings to fall into the three lower realms”—but even those born into the human or heavenly realms cannot escape the suffering of “insatiable desires” and “unending greed.” The *Avatamsaka Sutra* points out that even those born as humans, attached to the five desires, will encounter the suffering of “poverty and hardship,” “separation from loved ones,” and “meeting with those they hate,” never truly freed from the entanglements of afflictions. More seriously, greed forms a strong “karmic chain,” causing sentient beings to repeatedly make the same mistakes in reincarnation, “dying and being reborn, devouring each other,” finding it difficult to escape the sea of suffering.
(IV) Harmful Effects of Excessive Salt, Sugar, and Carbohydrate Consumption on the Human Body
1. Salt (Sodium Chloride)
Excessive intake (>5 grams per day) directly raises blood pressure, inducing stroke and coronary heart disease: A Lancet study shows that 3 million deaths worldwide each year are related to high-salt diets; high salt intake also damages the gastric mucosa, increases the risk of stomach cancer (World Health Organization data), and accelerates calcium loss, inducing osteoporosis.
2. Sugar
Excessive intake of >25 grams of added sugar per day (approximately 6 teaspoons) significantly increases health risks: The journal *Circulation* confirms that consuming one sugary drink per day increases the risk of diabetes by 26%; excessive sugar causes fatty liver, tooth decay, and can disrupt metabolism through “sugar addiction,” leading to obesity (Harvard Medical School study), and high-sugar diets are associated with depression and cognitive decline (*Nature Neuroscience*). 3. Carbohydrates (mainly refined carbohydrates)
Refined carbohydrates (white rice, white flour) have a high glycemic index, rapidly raising blood sugar and leading to insulin resistance (prediabetes) in the long term. The *American Journal of Clinical Nutrition* indicates that when refined carbohydrates make up more than 50% of the diet, the risk of cardiovascular disease increases by 40%. Excess carbohydrates are converted into fat, exacerbating obesity, while refined carbohydrates, lacking dietary fiber, can also induce gut microbiota imbalance, increasing the risk of colon cancer.
Core Conclusion: The harmfulness of all three stems from “excessive (greedy) + refinement.” Moderate intake of natural forms (such as whole-grain carbohydrates) is harmless, and even necessary. The hidden additives in processed foods in modern diets (such as sodium in sauces, sugar in snacks, and the prevalence of refined staple foods) are the key health threats.
Chapter Four: Practical Paths to Subduing Greed
(I) Establishing Right View: Breaking the Cognitive Foundation of Greed
The primary prerequisite for subduing greed is establishing correct cognition, recognizing the illusory nature and harm of greed. Buddhism believes that greed originates from sentient beings’ erroneous understanding of “Dharma”—clinging to the illusory external world as real, and regarding fleeting sensory stimulation as pleasure. The *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* uses the metaphor of “staring intently and exerting effort”: “For example, someone with clear eyes observes a bright, empty sky, finding only emptiness and nothingness. Then, without any cause, that person stares intently, exerting effort, and in that emptiness, they see illusory flowers.” This points out that greed, like illusory flowers in the sky, is a phantom created by the deluded mind’s attachment, not a real thing.
To dispel this misconception, one must establish the correct view of “all phenomena are empty” and “all conditioned things are impermanent” through the study and contemplation of Buddhist scriptures. The wealth, sex, fame, food, sleep, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touch that sentient beings crave are all products of the coming together of causes and conditions. “When causes and conditions come together, illusory existence arises; when causes and conditions separate, illusory existence ceases.” Their essence lacks any permanent, unchanging nature. As Zen Master Yongjia said in his *Song of Enlightenment*, “The five aggregates are like floating clouds, coming and going in vain; the three poisons are like bubbles, appearing and disappearing in illusory form.” Greed and the objects of greed are like bubbles and floating clouds, fleeting and not worth clinging to.
At the same time, it is necessary to verify the harm of greed through observing real-life examples and one’s own experiences. For example, the maggot-infused cheese of Sardinia, Italy, and the naked customs of primitive African tribes, all illustrate that sentient beings’ perceptions of “beauty,” “goodness,” and “desire” originate from acquired influences and are not absolute truths. Through this observation, one can break free from the ingrained attachment to the realm of greed, dismantling the foundation of greed at the cognitive level.
(II) Cultivating Faith: Strengthening the Core Support of Practice
The *Avatamsaka Sutra* states, “Faith is the source of the path and the mother of merit, nurturing all good dharmas.” The *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra* also says, “The ocean of Dharma can be entered through faith, and crossed through wisdom.” Faith is the core support for subduing greed. Here, “faith” is not blind superstition, but genuine faith in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—believing that the Dharma can guide sentient beings free from the bondage of greed, believing that virtuous teachers can guide practice, and believing that one inherently possesses the potential for liberation.
Cultivating faith requires distinguishing between “faith based on karmic connections” and “true faith”: Faith based on karmic connections is a preliminary belief based on past lives and external causes, while true faith is a steadfast conviction deeply ingrained and verified through practice. To transform from faith based on karmic connections to true faith, one needs to cultivate the three wisdoms of “hearing, contemplating, and practicing”: hearing Buddhist teachings, contemplating the harm of greed and the possibility of liberation, and practicing Buddhist teachings in daily life. For example, by observing the suffering arising from greed, one can verify the truth that “all suffering arises from greed”; by practicing generosity, observing precepts, and other virtuous deeds, one can experience the purity and peace of being free from greed, thereby strengthening one’s faith in Buddhism.
True faith is powerful enough to break the habitual tendencies of greed. As the *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* states, the “abode of faith” of a first-stage Bodhisattva can “extinguish all delusions without remainder.” With “wonderful faith” as a needle, one can easily puncture the “balloon” of greed. If practitioners can believe in the Dharma as a primary school student believes in their teacher, they can quickly recognize when greed arises and not be misled by it.
(III) Practicing Morality, Concentration, and Wisdom: The Fundamental Method for Purifying the Mind
The Buddha taught, “Diligently cultivate morality, concentration, and wisdom to extinguish greed, anger, and ignorance.” These three studies are the fundamental methods for subduing greed; they complement each other and are indispensable.
The study of morality is the foundation for subduing greed. The *Avataṃsaka Sūtra* states, “The precepts are the root of unsurpassed Bodhi; one should single-mindedly uphold pure precepts.” As a code of conduct for spiritual practice, precepts directly sever the external causes of greed—the Five Precepts—not killing, not stealing, not committing adultery, not lying, and not drinking alcohol, respectively correspond to the restraint of greed for life, wealth, lust, fame, and sensual pleasures. The core of upholding precepts is not the external form of constraint, but rather the inner awareness and control over greed. As stated in the *Buddha’s Last Teachings*: “Precepts are the foundation of right and proper liberation, hence the name *Pratimoksha*. By relying on these precepts, one can attain various meditative states and the wisdom to extinguish suffering.” Through upholding precepts, practitioners can cultivate a sense of awe towards greed, gradually reducing negative karma of body, speech, and mind, laying the foundation for spiritual purification.
Concentration is key to subduing greed, and its core is “the mind not being swayed by external circumstances.” The *Surangama Sutra* proposes the practice of “turning the hearing inward to hear one’s own nature,” which means reflecting inward, not chasing after external sounds and dust, and abiding in the unborn and undying self-nature, so that “afflictions such as greed and toil naturally fall away completely.” Practitioners can achieve this through meditation.
Cultivating concentration through methods such as breath observation helps train a mindset of “non-attachment to external circumstances” in daily life—maintaining inner peace and clarity when faced with desirable things, and not being led astray by greed. True concentration is not about suppressing thoughts, but about being aware of and non-attached to them. As stated in the *Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana*, “When the mind arises, all phenomena arise; when the mind ceases, all phenomena cease.” When the mind is not attached to the realm of desire, desire naturally cannot arise.
Wisdom is the foundation for subduing greed. The core of wisdom is a thorough understanding of reality. Practitioners need to study scriptures and engage in contemplative reflection to understand the truths of “the five aggregates are empty” and “all phenomena are without self,” and to see clearly the illusory nature and causal laws of greed. The practice of wisdom is embodied in “relinquishing worldly afflictions in the moment,” meaning that as soon as greed arises, one uses wisdom to observe its illusory nature, neither yielding to it nor clinging to it, thereby liberating oneself from afflictions. For example, when craving food arises, one observes that the nature of food is “an illusion arising from causes and conditions,” and that the pleasure of eating is “a fleeting sensory stimulation,” ultimately leading only to “difficulties in body, speech, and mind,” thus letting go of attachment; when craving fame arises, one observes the impermanence of fame, understanding that “fame and fortune are like fleeting clouds,” thus returning to the purity of one’s inner mind.
(iv) Strengthening Observation: Practical Techniques for Subduing Greed in the Present Moment
The key to subduing greed lies in “present awareness.” Practitioners need to cultivate the ability to observe their thoughts at all times, stopping the harm the moment greed arises. Specifically, the following observation methods can be used:
First, the method of observing suffering to sever craving. The Mahaparinirvana Sutra points out that the wise should “deeply observe the eight sufferings,” recognizing that “craving and ignorance are the causes of suffering,” and then severing both internal and external craving—”Having severed internal craving, karma is severed; having severed external craving, the result is severed.” Practitioners can frequently contemplate the suffering arising from greed, such as the suffering of unfulfilled desires and the suffering of the three lower realms, using the “sword of suffering hanging high” as a warning to cultivate a fear of greed and fundamentally sever attachment to the states of desire.
Secondly, there is the method of observing truth and falsehood. Recognize that one’s true nature is the real “I,” while greed is like an illusory bubble. As Zen Master Yongjia said in his *Song of Enlightenment*, “The bubbles of the three poisons appear and disappear in an instant.” Greed is like a bubble; it seems to exist, but in reality, it is fleeting and cannot be controlled. When greed arises, practitioners can contemplate that “greed itself has no inherent nature; it is merely the illusory attachment of the mind,” neither yielding to nor resisting it, allowing it to arise and perish naturally, thereby maintaining inner purity.
Thirdly, there is the method of focused contemplation. Position yourself as a “student” and a “Bodhisattva practitioner,” holding yourself to higher standards. The *Buddha’s Last Teachings* warns, “The thieves of afflictions constantly lure to kill, even more so than enemies.” Students must be constantly vigilant against the harm of greed, avoiding it as if it were a poisonous snake or a miasma. Through this positioning, cultivate a sense of shame and reverence; “shame is like an iron hook, capable of restraining unlawful actions,” promptly restraining your behavior and thoughts when greed arises.
(V) Utilizing External Forces: Making Good Use of the Supporting Role of Conditions
Subduing greed is not a solitary battle. Students can leverage the connections of virtuous teachers, the vows of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and fellow practitioners to enhance their ability to subdue greed. Associating with virtuous teachers is the first priority in spiritual practice. The *Mahayana Sutra of the Mind-Ground Contemplation* states: “Associating with virtuous friends is the first, hearing the true Dharma is the second, contemplating it rationally is the third, and practicing and realizing it according to the Dharma is the fourth.” Virtuous teachers can guide practitioners with their own experience, promptly correcting their erroneous understanding of greed, and offering guidance and encouragement when they fall into the trap of greed. Practitioners should proactively associate with virtuous teachers who are strict in upholding precepts and possess profound wisdom, continuously strengthening their faith and ability to subdue greed through listening to their teachings and practicing accordingly.
Relying on the sublime vows of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas is also an important path. The *Avatamsaka Sutra* records that the female Bodhisattva Vasumitra attained liberation from “greed and desire,” enabling her to manifest and preach the Dharma according to the desires of sentient beings, leading them to renounce greed. The *Lotus Sutra*, in the chapter on the Universal Gate of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, also states: “If sentient beings are excessively lustful, by constantly reciting and revering Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, they will be freed from desire.” Practitioners can eliminate the seeds of greed through reciting the names of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, making respectful offerings to the Three Jewels, and repenting for karmic obstacles, relying on the power of the vows and Dharma of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. It is important to note that the core of relying on external forces is “sincere faith and joy” and “aversion to greed.” If one still clings to greed, even reciting holy names will hardly bring blessings.
Furthermore, practicing together with fellow practitioners can enhance the power to subdue greed. In a group setting, practitioners can supervise and encourage each other, share experiences and insights on subduing greed, and avoid the laziness and negligence that can occur when practicing alone. Through the power of the group, a positive atmosphere of “jointly eradicating greed and jointly attaining enlightenment” is formed, helping each other to steadily progress on the path of practice.
Chapter Five: Conclusion
Greed, as the root of sentient beings’ afflictions and suffering, is essentially attachment and clinging to illusory external circumstances. It not only causes individual physical and mental suffering and hinders the progress of practice, but also drives the endless cycle of birth and death. Buddhist scriptures offer profound insights into the nature and harm of greed, proposing a complete path to subdue it, guided by right view, supported by faith, centered on precepts, concentration, and wisdom, using contemplation as a method, and aided by external forces.
In contemporary society, the expansion of material desires has led to unprecedented spiritual dilemmas, with anxiety, emptiness, and interpersonal alienation becoming increasingly prominent. Buddhist thought on greed provides valuable wisdom for addressing these problems. Subduing greed does not deny reasonable needs, but rather breaks free from attachment to and insatiable pursuit of desires, returning to inner purity and peace. By establishing right view, cultivating faith, practicing morality, concentration, and wisdom, strengthening mindfulness, and utilizing external forces, individuals can not only break free from the shackles of greed, achieving spiritual purification and sublimation, but also face life with a pure mind, building harmonious interpersonal relationships and a positive social environment.
As explained in this article, the process of subduing greed is a gradual one of “cognition—faith—practice—enlightenment,” requiring perseverance and willpower from the practitioner.
May all readers and sentient beings, through Buddhist wisdom, quickly recognize the harm of greed, embark on the path of subduing greed, escape the sea of suffering of birth and death, attain the ultimate and perfect Buddhahood, and realize true spiritual freedom and eternal peace and happiness.
References
Ancient Texts (arranged chronologically by dynasty):
* *Three Times of Mindfulness* (CBETA 2025.R3, X74, no. 1464, p. 58a8-9)
* *The Great Buddha’s Crown Sutra* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
* *The Sutra of the Fundamental Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
* *The Sutra of the Great Perfect Enlightenment Sutra* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
* *The Sutra of the Precious Rain Spoken by the Buddha* (CBETA, T16, no. 660)
* *The Sutra of the Brief Teachings on the Buddha’s Parinirvana* (CBETA 2020.Q1, T12, no. 389)
* *The Chapter on the Meaning of Mahayana* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
* *Abhidharmakośa* (CBETA) 2020.Q1
*The Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Treatise on the Stages of the Yogacara-bhumi* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Abhidharma-kosa-sastra* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Avatamsaka Sutra* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Sutra of Forty-Two Chapters Spoken by the Buddha* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Praise of the Buddha’s Deeds* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Great Compassion Sutra* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Sutra of the Contemplation of the Mind-Ground of the Original Birth* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana* (CBETA 2020.Q1)
*The Lotus Sutra* (CBETA) 2020.Q1)
The Sutra of the Ten Wholesome Deeds (CBETA 2020.Q1)
The Mahaparinirvana Sutra (CBETA 2020.Q1, T12, no. 374)
The Song of Enlightenment (CBETA 2020.Q1)